Influence of human-forest relationships on perceived happiness in Finland

1. The social functions of forest resources must be acknowledged for effective forest management, given the environmental challenges facing humanity. The current study assessed the dimensions of human–forest relationships that influence perceived happiness of people. We focused on Finland, where an industrialised forest-based market economy coexists with a widespread cultural appreciation of forests. 2. We conducted a web-based national questionnaire survey to collect data on human–forest relationships that influence perceived happiness in Finland. We explore the contribution of forest exposure, engagement, characteristic of human–forest bond such as biophilic values, and cultural ecosystem services to forest happiness in Finland. 3. Finnish forest happiness appeared to have three main dimensions: (i) the bond to natural-like forests through values raised from the experienced connection with nature (i.e. biophilic values), (ii) utilitarian forest engagements and (iii) forest exposure. Although both forest bond and forest engagements contributed to eudaimonic happiness, only utilitarian engagements and managed forest environment contributed to hedonic happiness. Eco-anxiety has formed an elemental part of the bond to natural-like forests, indicating that this dimension of Finnish forest happiness can also reduce perceived happiness. 4. Among the respondents, the happiness of hunters and men was correlated with utilitarian engagements and managed forests, and the happiness of women was more strongly associated with the bond to natural-like forest. The happiness of those adults who now or in their childhood lived in the countryside was related to utilitarian forest engagements and managed forest environments. The lived forest experiences and cultural background shape how people perceive forests and which aspects contribute most to their forest happiness. 5. Our finding on the importance of cultural contexts and personal values in shaping the human–forest relationship emphasises the integration of cultural perspectives in forest management and conservation efforts, in addition to economic and ecological aspects. As people appeared to exist on a spectrum between anthropocentric and ecocentric views, forest policies should provide opportunities for all kinds of forest relationships and forest happiness in their living environment.