Marjatta Hytönen (ed.) Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Marjatta Hytönen (ed.) 1995 METLA, The Finnish Forest Research Institute © 1995 The Finnish Forest Research Institute and the authors. Cover photo: A view from Sotkamo in eastern Finland by Erkki Oksanen/ METLA. Distribution: The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Library. Address: P.0.80x 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland. Phone: +358-0-8570 5580, fax: +358-0-8570 5582, email: library@metla.fi. ISBN 951-40-1421-9 o Paper: Designer's Matt Art 100 gsm/m" (the paper is entitled to use the Nor dic environmental label). Printed in Finland by Gummerus Printing, Jyväskylä 1995. 3 Contents 3 Foreword 7 1 Introduction 9 2 A short history of forest uses 11 Bo Fritzboger & Poul Sondergaard 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Traditional multiple-use forestry 15 2.3 Forestry, forest policies and woodland development 27 2.4 The advent of sustained yield forestry 33 2.5 Forests for leisure and modern multiplicity 36 3 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept. . 43 Marjatta Hytönen 3.1 Too abstract to be useful? 44 3.2 Origins of the concept 44 3.3 Nordic countries 46 3.4 Sustainable multiple-use forestry 59 4 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication 67 Jann Fernand 4.1 Introduction 68 4.2 Seeking a position for the notion multiple use 69 4.3 Forest functions 72 4.4 An interpretation of the theory of forest functions 75 4.5 What is multiple use? 77 5 Timber production and the forest industry 81 Marjatta Hytönen & Sigurdur Blöndal 5.1 Introduction 82 5.2 Timber resources 82 5.3 Silviculture 91 5.4 Forest industry 96 5.5 Future challenges 103 6 Non-timber forest products and their utilization 117 Kauko Salo 6.1 An aspect of multiple-use forestry 118 6.2 Rights of public access 118 6.3 Occurrence of wild berries in the Nordic countries 121 6.4 Yields of the most important wild berries 127 4 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 6.5 Edible mushroom species in the Nordic countries 134 6.6 Mushroom yields 139 6.7 Other forest products 144 7 Reindeer husbandry and hunting 157 Timo Helle 7.1 Introduction 158 7.2 Reindeer husbandry 158 7.3 Hunting 170 7.4 Reindeer and game in forest planning 179 8 Fauna and flora management in forestry 191 Kjell Sjöberg & Tommy Lennartsson 8.1 Introduction 192 8.2 Basic concepts 198 8.3 How forestry influences biodiversity 206 8.4 Strategies for maintaining biodiversity 215 8.5 Tools for maintaining biodiversity 216 8.6 Who should act? 227 8.7 The future 228 9 Forest recreation 245 Frank Sondergaard Jensen 9.1 Introduction 246 9.2 Recreational use of the forest 247 9.3 Preferences of the population 258 9.4 Nature interpretation and nature schools 261 9.5 Urban forests and green spaces 267 9.6 Future 269 10 Forest aesthetics 279 Christina Axelsson Lindgren 10.1 Introduction 280 10.2 Cultural importance of forest aesthetics 280 10.3 Perception of forest stands 281 10.4 Combinations of forest stands 283 10.5 Design and management of visual variation 286 10.6 Forest and the landscape 288 10.7 Discussion and concluding remarks 289 5 11 Landscape management in forestry 295 Minna Komulainen 11.1 Introduction 296 11.2 Forest aesthetics 296 11.3 History of forest aesthetics 297 11.4 Foresters as managers of nature and landscape 1880-1950 .. 300 11.5 Functional aesthetics and efficient forest management 1950-1970 302 11.6 Ecological trends in landscape management in the 1980 s. .. . 305 11.7 Research on forest landscape planning 308 11.8 Future aesthetic trends in multi-value forestry 313 12 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry 321 Katrine Hojring 12.1 Introduction 322 12.2 Land conquest and heritage preservation 323 12.3 The forest as a heritage preserver 324 12.4 Forest management after the Second World War 324 12.5 Protection of historical remains today 326 12.6 Protection of the surroundings 326 12.7 Unprotected remains 327 12.8 The organizational context of heritage preservation 328 12.9 Wood production and heritage preservation 330 12.10 Altering perspectives 331 12.11 A widening of the concept 333 12.12 Biological interests 333 12.13 Livestock husbandry 334 12.14 Recreational exploitation of forest 335 12.15 "Nature" parks and ecomuseums 336 12.16 Conclusions 337 13 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services 343 Per-Olov Johansson & Bengt Kriström & Leif Mattsson 13.1 Introduction 344 13.2 Hunting 345 13.3 Forest recreation 348 13.4 Fragile forests and endangered species 349 13.5 Methodological problems and discussion 351 6 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 14 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups 357 Katarina Eckerberg 14.1 Introduction 358 14.2 The four Nordic countries 359 14.3 Denmark 363 14.4 Norway 368 14.5 Finland 373 14.6 Sweden 377 14.7 Comparison and conclusions 382 14.8 Perspectives for the future 385 15 Planning of multiple-use forestry 391 Jyrki Kangas & Lene Kristiansen 15.1 Introduction 392 15.2 Planning facilitates decision-making 392 15.3 Some background to present approaches applied to forest planning in the Nordic countries 395 15.4 Attempts to develop multiple-use planning methods and systems in the Nordic countries 400 15.5 The perspectives of multiple-use planning 411 16 Multiple-use research 417 Olli Saastamoinen & Marjatta Hytönen 16.1 Introduction 418 16.2 Denmark 419 16.3 Finland 423 16.4 Iceland 429 16.5 Norway 430 16.6 Sweden 433 16.7 Research for the future 438 Map of the Nordic countries 447 Statistics 448 A. Area and population B. Structure of land use C. Forest resources D. Tree species distribution E. Productive forest area by owner groups F. Forest products in the economy Subject index 450 7 Foreword Foreword This publication is a result of Nordic research cooperation under the Nordic Council of Ministers and its Forest Research Cooperation Committee SNS (Samarbetsnämnden för Nordisk Skogsforskning). Since the 19705, the SNS has financed Nordic research in many fields of forestry. Because of growing interest in non-timber products and services, the SNS established a working group on multiple-use forestry in 1986. After several meetings and seminars, the working group decided to pro duce a book on multiple-use forestry to enhance multifunctional forestry re search, education and practice in the Nordic countries, and also to increase international information exchange and contacts. With this in mind, the book has been written in English. The SNS, the Nordic Council of Ministers, and forest research organiza tions from each Nordic country accepted the proposal to write the book in 1991. About half of the costs of the project have been financed by the SNS and the Council of Ministers, and the rest is covered by the national research or ganizations. The steering group of the project was formed by Dr. Aarne Reunala from the Finnish Forest Research Institute, who also acted as its chairman, Dr. Christina Axelsson Lindgren from the Institute of Landscape Planning of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Director Sigurdur Blöndal from the Iceland Forestry Service, Professor Lars Helge Frivold from the Depart ment of Forestry of the Norwegian Agricultural University, and Director Niels Elers Koch from the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute. Later, Dr. Katarina Eckerberg from the Department of Political Science of the Uni versity of Umeä joined the group. The steering group prepared an outline for the contents of the book and in vited researchers from all the countries involved to cover the topics. All au thors have made an extra effort to write not only about their own country, but also about the other Nordic countries. Research assistants helped the authors to get information on their fields. The assistants were Christina Axelsson Lindgren in Sweden, Sigurdur Blöndal in Iceland, Jann Fernand in Norway, Marjatta Hytönen in Finland, and Lene Kristiansen in Denmark. At a later stage of the project, Marjatta Hytönen was appointed as the editor of the book. The following referees have helped the authors with their comments: Oluf Aalde, Martti Aarne, Jorund Aasetre, Jette Baagoe, Monica Bennett- Gärdo, Paul Christensen, Finn-Egil Eckblad, Lars Emmelin, Raija-Riitta En roth, Olof Eriksson, Jan Falck, Ann-Katrine Geelmuyden, Risto Heikkilä, Jan Heino, Pekka Helle, Finn Helles, Eeva Hellström, Hans Fredrik Hoen, Erik Holmsgaard, Sven-G. Hultman, Hanne Hubertz, Liisa Kajala, Harri Karjalainen, Matti Kärkkäinen, Matti Leikola, Michael Linddal, Harto Linden, Mirja Miettinen, Arto Naskali, Timo Nikunen, Nils-Erik Nilsson, Matti Palo, Börje Pettersson, Päivi Piispa, Jens Nytoft Rasmussen, Arne 8 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Rognmo, Jyrki Salmi, Risto Savolainen, Heikki Seppälä, Yrjö Sevola, Tuija Sievänen, Birger Sohlberg, Hävard Steinsholt, Anne Toppinen, Bo Wallin, Martin Welp, Esa-Jussi Viitala and Lars Östlund. We are grateful for the contribution of all the people and institutions which have been involved in preparing this book. Compiling a publication by many authors and referees from different countries has been a rewarding experience, but, also, much more time consuming than expected in the planning phase of the project. Finally, warm thanks are due to Arja Suokas and Anna-Kaisu Kor honen for the lay-out of the book, and to Allan More for correcting the lan guage. Helsinki, March 1995 Aarne Reunala Marjatta Hytönen 9 Introduction 1 Introduction The character of forestry in northern Europe is changing. The economic sig nificance of timber production and the pulp and paper industry is decreasing in relation to other branches of the economy. New trends affecting traditional wood-based livelihoods include increasing production of wood in southern countries where it grows faster, reduction of wood fibre content in paper, and recycling of paper products. In Finland, Norway and Sweden, the supply of wood has exceeded demand for decades, and the gap has been widening fur ther during recent years. People in Denmark and Iceland have always been less dependent on wood as a source of living. In all these countries, the recre ational and nature protection functions of forests are gaining in importance because of growing environmental awareness. These changes allow for the elaboration and promotion of non-material forest benefits. They also call for new economically profitable uses of wood and non-wood forest resources. From the global point of view, the Nordic countries may look quite similar to each other with a cool and humid climate, and high standard of living. Still, they are very different from each other. The functions of forests in densely populated Denmark, in almost treeless Iceland, in mountainous Norway and in sparsely inhabited conifer-dominated Finland and Sweden are partly the same, but also very specific to their location. Moreover, the northern parts of the area are inhabited by the Sami people, whose culture crosses the national borders. The naming of the book was problematic. There is no exact geographical term which would cover the five countries involved. The often used term "Scandinavia" usually refers only to Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden. Because of historical reasons, Iceland has close relations to the Scandinavian countries and participates in many forms of cooperation. The forms which in clude Iceland are referred to by the word "Nordic". Because of this tradition, the term is also used in this book. A few authors use the term Fennoscandia. It refers, most often, to Norway, Sweden, Finland and the northwestern part of Russia. The chapters of this book have been written during the period 1991-1994. A lot has happened since starting the preparation of the publication. However, all the chapters are well rooted in their historical context and provide valuable information for the future. A few of the details are likely to change soon, main ly due to institutional rearrangements. Furthermore, forestry and other rural livelihoods are being affected by strong external forces. For example, air pol lution, climate change, environmental movements, trade regulations and inter national agreements all have their impacts on forests and utilization of forest resources. One of the biggest challenges facing the Nordic societies today is the high unemployment rate together with the cutback in the state-financed welfare systems, which have been largely based on public organizations. Other present 10 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries trends include the privatization and commercialization of state-owned enter prises, which also affects to some degree the organizations responsible for for ests, and the spreading of decision-making power to local level. As in many other regions, interest conflicts concerning the utilization and protection of forest resources are common in the Nordic countries and they are widely cov ered by the media. Simultaneously with domestic restructuring, the Nordic societies are adapting to European integration. Denmark has been a member of the Europe an Union since 1973. Finland and Sweden became members in 1995. Iceland and Norway have decided to stay outside the Union for the time being. Con sequently, the character of Nordic cooperation, which has been carried out through hundreds of more or less formal organizations and arrangements, is changing and new contacts are being established. The new cooperation part ners, in addition to increased contacts with central Europe, include the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Cooperation with the northwestern parts of Russia is promoted, among other things, by the Barents treaty, agreed upon in 1993 by the European Union, Russia and the Nordic countries. Most of the information presented in this book is based on research results. The articles mainly discuss the traditional fields of multiple-use forestry, namely wood and non-wood forest products, nature conservation, recreation and cultural issues. Employment problems and forest-related interest conflicts in the Nordic and neighbouring countries will increase the need for research on the social and livelihood aspects of forest resources. In addition, there is an evident need for more emphasis on research on integrated multiple-use forest ry management and associated forest policy measures. Urbanization has been affecting the Nordic societies for a long time and has led to geographical differentiation of values. The interests of the urban ma jority are threatening the cultural identity and livelihood opportunities of peo ple living in the countryside. This confrontation was clearly demonstrated by the referendums of Finland, Norway and Sweden in 1994, in which most rural people voted against joining the European Union, while urban people voted for it. Thus, a relevant future research topic will be the role of multiple-use forestry in bridging the gap between the culture in rural and urban areas. Forest-related livelihoods and hobbies have been and still are an essential part of the Nordic culture. They are not disappearing, but instead being re shaped according to the new values of people and changes in social structures. This book is the most complete overview of Nordic multiple-use forestry in English until now. Still, it cannot give a very detailed description of all the fields of multiple use. For a deeper study, many of the chapters include com prehensive reference lists containing more specific sources. The authors and their organizations can also provide further information. It is to be hoped that this book can serve as a source of inspiration for more multiple-use discus sion, research and practical applications. 11 A short history of forest uses 2 A short history of forest uses Bo Fritzboger' Poul Sondergaard 2 Abstract The last ice age ended in Scandinavia about 15,000 years ago. The land was gradually occupied by the present tree species. Human settlement followed the vegetation. The first forest uses were hunting and gathering. Animal hus bandry and forest grazing came later. Shifting cultivation was a widespread form of agriculture, especially in Sweden and Finland. Wood was first used for domestic purposes and for construction. In the 1 8th century, wood became a commercial product. Overcutting, grazing and agricultural cultivation caused deforestation and degradation of forests. These problems accelerated the creation of forest policy. The principles of sustained yield wood produc tion were first applied in Scandinavia in the 1 8th century. In the 1 9th century, forests became a source of raw material for the forest industry. Recently, increasing urbanization has created the need for renewed contact with nature and led to the development of modern multiple-use forestry management. Keywords: ice age, forests, grazing, agriculture, deforestation, logging, forest policy. 1 University of Copenhagen Department of History Njalsgade 102, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark 2 Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Department of Botany, Dendrology and Forest Genetics, Arboretum Kirkegärdsvej 3 A, DK-2970 Horsholm. Denmark 12 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 2.1 Introduction The extensive woodlands of Scandinavia have for thousands of years pro vided human society with a wide range of indispensable natural resources. Traditional forest uses have always been many-sided, whereas the one-sided ness of modern wood production is a relatively recent phenomenon. The mul tiplicity of uses reflected the great variety of woodland types ranging from the vast coniferous plains of inland Fennoscandia (Finland, Norway and Sweden) over the southwestern tracts of deciduous forests to the birch forests of Ice land and southern Greenland. Many forest uses have induced a number of changes in the forest ecosystems in a continuous interaction with the general development of society. These man-made changes became a threat to human society in many areas and eventually gave rise to the introduction of manage ment systems to assure sustained yield from the forests. However, during recent decades, the public demand for recreation and contact with nature has changed forest uses from mainly wood production to new kinds of multiplicity. Regional diversities When the ice started its retreat at the end of the last glaciation, the Weichse lian, about 15,000 C-14 years ago, the main forest tree species began to re colonize central and northern Europe. Birch and pine were the predominant species, followed by oak. Later came lime and elm, attracted by a still warmer climate, which reached its postglacial peak about 8,000 calendar-years ago. At that time, the primeval forests were dominated by lime and oak, and they covered most of the soils in southern Scandinavia. In northern Scandinavia and on poorer soils in the south, the most common species were pine and birch. About 4,000 years ago, spruce entered Finland from Russia, and continued its westward expansion into Sweden and Norway. At approximately the same time, beech entered Scandinavia from the south (Figure 2.1). Gradually spruce became a dominant component in the forests of middle and northern Fenno scandia, whereas it never reached Denmark and southwest Norway by natural dispersal. Eventually, beech attained a dominant position in the broadleaved forests of southernmost Scandinavia, while lime and elm lost their importance and disappeared from many areas. Thus, 2,000 years ago, the present forest zones of northern Europe were more or less established. Denmark, southernmost Sweden, and a fringe of western Norway belong to the central and western European deciduous forest zone (Rubner 1960), in which the most characteristic species are beech (Fagus sylvatica), pedunculate oak and sessile oak (Quercus robur and Q. petraea). Central Sweden, south east Norway and a fringe of southern Finland are covered by mixed forests of broadleaves and conifers, of which the most important species are Norway spruce (Picea abies), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris ), pedunculate oak, silver 13 A short history of forest uses Figure 2.1 Distribution of stands of beech, pine and spruce in the southwestern Swedish prov ince of Halland according to forest inventories in 1729. The area is situated on the northeast ern edge of the natural dispersal of Fagus sylvatica and on the southern border of Picea abies. Spruce seems to have abstained from dispersal into the coastal lowland where saline winds may have impeded its growth (Malmström 1939). 14 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries birch (Betula verrucosa) and downy birch (Betula pubescens). The remaining parts of Finland, Norway and Sweden belong, with minor exceptions, to the North European conifer-birch region, which covers approximately 90 % of the three countries. This zone is the western outreach of the Russian Taiga, or the Boreal Conifer Zone with Scots pine, Norway spruce, silver birch and downy birch as the dominant species. Iceland, the Faeroe Islands and Greenland belong to the Nordic sphere of cultural and political influence. Consequently, their traditions in forestry and tree planting are closely linked to Scandinavia. Iceland, the Faeroe Islands and southernmost SW-Greenland can be classified as a potential subarctic boreal forest zone. This has so far materialized in birch climaxes (Betula pubescens 5.1.) in Iceland and SW-Greenland, while the Faeroe Islands have had no nat ural forests in historical times. Continuity and change The immense contrasts in the natural geography of Scandinavia have been reflected in the regional patterns of forest uses. In spite of such differences, the development of the relationship between man and forest seems to have followed the same four fundamental stages (Kardell 1988): 1) As long as population was small and nomadic, and woodland resources correspondingly superfluous, people's elementary requirements for wood were easily satisfied. Access to utilize forest resources was therefore free. 2) As soon as population density increased and settlements became more sta ble, local overcutting and overgrazing imperceptibly produced cultural landscapes with unequally distributed woodland resources. The limited goods of these woodlands (timber, fuel, etc.) were treated and valued as (potential) commodities, and their continuous production had to be pro tected by legal regulations. 3) These merely inactive, protective measures were rarely sufficient to main tain a sustained yield of wood. As a result of greater innovative reforms in land ownership and forestry technology, trees were domesticated and bred in active silviculture. 4) The ultimate phase in the development of silviculture was the introduction of new species, selection, improvement and genetic engineering. Transition through these roughly outlined stages did not take place concur rently in all parts of Scandinavia. Their chronology was, so to speak, displaced from southwest towards northeast. Several forest uses which had been aban doned in Denmark, southern Sweden and western Norway during prehistoric or medieval times still had great importance in 19th century eastern Finland. This delay was not only caused by extremely dissimilar geographical condi tions. Man's approach towards the forest, and consequently his influence on its 15 A short history of forest uses reproduction, can, broadly speaking, be regarded as an interaction between four interdependent factors. It is evident that density of population is of immediate importance to the impact of man on nature. For example, an increasing population pressure en courages new clearings and settlements, thus reducing the extent of woodland. With unaltered technologies, the consumption of woodland resources will de velop in direct proportion to the population. Hence, the most densely populat ed areas of Scandinavia were the first to experience shortage of wood. Secondly, not only the number of people but also their technological abilities have always determined forest uses and their ecological consequences. Third ly, demands from abroad can determine the kind and intensity of forestry. Since the Middle Ages, the international economic setting of trade relations and market trends accordingly became a still more perceptible factor in the shaping of forestry. Finally, the socio-political context (e.g. property forms and legislation) has, since the Late Middle Ages, developed into a more and more dominant factor in the shaping of forestry. Political regulation and even the formulation of property rights seem primarily to have followed local scar city of wood and specific demands of the market. 2.2 Traditional multiple-use forestry Settlements and clearings Already by the beginning of this millennium man had for generations manip ulated the landscape in which he lived and died. This impact became still more perceptible with the development of a more stable settlement structure in southern Scandinavia following, among other things, the building of Chris tian village churches during the Early Middle Ages (1 Oth— l 2th centuries). Around new hamlets or single farms and in the fringes of old village grounds, woodland was cleared for crops and pasture. With these clearings, the funda mental distinctions between woodland and plain were formed. The core areas of Scandinavian settlement have remained largely unal tered since the Middle Ages, whereas the density of population has varied greatly. In southwest Scandinavia, the demographic boom of the 10th-13th centuries was followed by the setback of the Black Death (1349-50). The re percussions of this Late Medieval decrease were not counterbalanced until the 1 6th— 1 8th centuries, when a number of extremely destructive wars caused a new temporary decrease. The gross population development AD 1000-1993 was, nevertheless, positive. Whereas the Danish average 13th century popula tion density has been estimated as about 20 persons/km 2 , Norwegian, Swedish and Finnish population density did not exceed 2. Around 1850, the average densities still varied from 40 persons/km 2 in Denmark to 8 in Sweden and 5 in Finland and Norway. 16 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 2.2 Distribution of the Norwegian population in the 16605. Each dot represents 1,000 persons in rural districts; each square a town with the number of inhabitants not given (Tuxen & Hellesen 1988). Within the four countries, the population was very unevenly distributed. Finland was until 1809 a province of Sweden and during the following 110 years a Russian grand duchy. Early settlement took place in the southern river valleys, where considerable areas were cleared around large stationary villag es. In Sweden, the largest concentration of settlements were found in the great plains of the central Svealand and in the southernmost province of Scania, which was until 1658 a part of Denmark. The Norwegian population was pri marily situated along the fjords of the west coast and in the fertile river valleys north of Oslo (Figure 2.2). In many areas of western and southern coastal Nor way, southern Sweden and Jutland, large parts of the indigenous wildwoods had been replaced by Calluna heathland already during the neolithic period. 17 A short history of forest uses Forests as a resource for hunting and gathering An abundance of animal and plant resources formed the basic means of pre historic human subsistence in the deciduous and coniferous wildwoods of Scandinavia. But ever since the Neolithic Revolution, beginning in southern Scandinavia some 6,000 calendar years ago and gradually spreading towards the north and east, the importance of hunting, picking of wild fruits and ber ries, and gathering of mushrooms and bark declined. Both hunting and gathering nevertheless continued to form an important supplement to agriculture and animal husbandry in times of famine. For exam ple, flour substitutes made from bark were well known all over Scandinavia. There are numerous local examples of the general economic importance of these ancient means of subsistence, especially in some parts of northern Scan dinavia. Until the emergence of Dutch-American trappers during the 16th cen tury, northern Fennoscandia and Russia were the main international suppliers of furs. From the southernmost islands of Denmark, considerable quantities of nuts were exported during the 16th and 17th centuries to the Hanseatic cities south of the Baltic, and so collecting of hazelnuts was a notable factor in the local economy. Together with the woodland in which they lived, the game population first decreased in the densely populated southern Scandinavia. Mainly for this rea son, hunting in Denmark and southern Sweden was increasingly regarded as a royal or noble sport. Since the Late Middle Ages the liberty to hunt, especially large game, was notably restricted. These limitations were partly caused by certain royal and noble ideological pretensions. The chase, so to speak, re placed the tour de force of medieval tournaments. However, the enormous consumption of venison at court could alone explain the royal interest in hunt ing (Figure 2.3). The legal restraints on common hunting rights produced a number of spe cial royal hunting domains. The English term "forest", known also in the Latin "Foresta", the German "Forst" and the French "foret", originally referred to a hunting domain belonging to the king or another magnate. Thus, not necessar ily to an area of woodland. Such game preserves were established in Denmark during the High Middle Ages and could consist either of rather small territo ries ("dyrehaver" (anglo-saxon: "derhage") or somewhat more sizeable tracts "vildtbaner"). Both types normally seem to have been placed in regions dom inated by woodland, and the special attention paid to the wild forest animals considerably influenced the composition and reproduction of the woodland. In most of northern Scandinavia, the hunting rights of independent farmers on the other hand remained fairly untouched. In 1729, Swedish and Finnish farmers obtained hunting rights similar to those of the nobility. During the 19th century, Danish hunting monopolies were dissolved parallel with gradual political liberation and the formation of constitutional democracy. In the vac uum between zealously guarded restrictions and modern protective measures, 18 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 2.3 Allegorical representation of winter. In the foreground a noble lady and her children enjoy the heat from open fire. In the background a log is being dragged from the forest by two horses while a noble master and his hounds chase a wild boar. Ceiling painting from the Dan ish manor Naesbyholm, dated approximately AD 1580. (The National Museum, Copenhagen). 19th century hunting experienced a veritable boom. In Denmark, poaching seems to have become a non-negligible menace to forest owners. 19 A short history of forest uses Animal husbandry and pastoralism in the forests Animal husbandry has not up till now shown any specific preference for the coniferous forests of northern and eastern Scandinavia, but in the deciduous forest zones there is an old affinity between livestock and woodland. The extent of arable land cleared in the forest by neolithic or medieval settlers in general remained modest, and livestock consequently was of great impor tance. In many places, animal husbandry was even so closely related to the presence of wood pasture that manorial rents from forest settlements nor mally consisted of butter, meat, cheese or living animals rather than grain or money. The woodland first of all provided extensive areas of permanent pasture among scattered trees. During the summertime, large herds of domestic ani mals occupied the forests, equally grazing the forest floor and browsing its trees and bushes. In southern Scandinavia, tree cover protected the herb and grass layer against the desiccating sunlight, so that grass production of wood pastures in general seems to have been more stable than that of other types of pasture. Originally herdsmen must have followed the herd in order to protect it against predators in the vast prehistoric wildwoods. As the degree of cultiva tion and the extent of stock raising soon underwent notable regional differen tiation, a diversity in pasture forms developed. First of all, the duration of the summer pasture varied significantly with the latitude. In mountainous regions, the livestock was normally relocated from the homestead to extensive areas of mountain pasture ("saster", "fasbod") with thickets of stunted birch trees. In the conifer-birch zone south of the tundra, forest glades were used as pasture. The dark coniferous forest was not a very hospitable environment for herbs or grasses, nor to grazing animals. But since the "slash-and-burn" cultivation (see below) practised in these regions includ ed an interval of forest regeneration dominated by broadleaved pioneer species like birch, some livestock could be fed in the tree covered infields near the set tlement. In southern Scandinavia at least three different historical categories of wood pasture can be discerned: 1) Stretches of commons between the enclosed fields of individual villages were normally used for permanent pasture and would often be wooded. 2) Substantial cattle grazing took place in the fields after harvest. Since arable land in large parts of Scandinavia as late as the 1 9th century was character ized by the intermingling of field strips with moist, infertile depressions, thickets and scattered, old, solitary trees, even this could be typified as "wood pasture". 20 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 3) Finally, in woodland regions, by the Middle Ages each settlement had ac quired their own woodlots which in turn were used as fenced paddocks. Such "hagar" were a particularly distinct feature of central Scandinavia. Concerning animal husbandry, broadleaved trees represented a far greater diversity of uses than conifers. Consequently, deciduous woodland was nor mally located in the infields surrounding the settlements, whereas conifers were confined to the outfields. This feature was, and still is, particularly con spicuous in the birch-conifer dominated zones of northern-central Scandina via. "Pannage", i.e. the fattening of domestic swine in the forest, was exclu sively related to the presence of deciduous forest. As in most parts of western and central Europe, this royal and noble pannage regulation produced a rich source material which could give the misleading impression that precisely this kind of forest use was the most important. Every summer all woodlots were surveyed according to their prospective yield of acorns and beech mast. Fol lowing the survey, the appropriate number of swine was counted and branded before being led to the forest, where they spent the last months of their lives until the traditional great Christmas slaughter (Figure 2.4). The vegetation of the forest floor did not contribute to livestock reproduc tion only during the summer pasture season. Especially in northern Scandina via, fenced and wooded meadows corresponding to the grazing paddocks secured production of winter fodder. Even though meadows were equally in dispensable throughout Scandinavia, the wooded type had rather different functions in the north and south. In the south, hay and straw seem, at least since the Middle Ages, to have provided sufficient fodder for the wintertime, and trees in the meadows were mainly coppiced to produce fuelwood. In the north, where the winter was longer and harder, and where production of the meadows did not meet the demand for stall feeding, tree leaves were cut down and dried to be used as highly nutritious fodder. Special knifes for this purpose from the Iron Age have been excavated in western Norway. Primarily elm, birch and ash were used as leaf fodder, and in general these species, together with hazel, lime and oak were preferred by browsing livestock. On the other hand, alder, willow and beech did not appeal to most animals. From the area of present day Denmark, scant evidence of post medieval use of leaf fodder exists, even though its application in southern Sweden is am ply recorded. In years with bad hay making or harvest failures, the foliage and twigs of trees formed an appreciated substitute everywhere. 18 th and 19th cen tury evidence furthermore indicates that leaves have been used as fertilizer in both vegetable gardens and forest nurseries, whereas the central European tra ditions for "Streunutzung" (collection of litter) do not seem to have been prac tised in any part of Scandinavia. 21 A short history of forest uses Figure 2.4 Forest swine as depicted in 0. Brunfels: Contrafayt Kreuterbuch, 1535. Agriculture and woodland The widespread ideological antagonism between woodland and arable fields symbolizes man's struggle against nature. The two represent primeval wilder ness vs. civilized society. This explanation is equally promoted by archaic myths and modern alienation from nature. It overlooks the fact that the close, 22 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 2.5 Areas of Finland under slash-and-burn cultivation in the 1830s. The rye yield from this type of agroforestry is expressed as a percentage (per parish) of the total rye crop (Linkola 1988). original connection between deciduous woodland and arable farming was dissolved only a few centuries ago. In regions dominated by woodland, no clear distinction between farm land and forest was discernible. Throughout large parts of northern Scandinavia, clearing and regrowth alternated in various field systems based on long peri ods of fallow. Everywhere, the wooded village outskirts served as buffers be- 23 A short history of forest uses tween cultivated infields and extensively utilized commons. In times of demographic and economic expansion, trees and thickets were cleared to give way to increased cultivation. When recession prevailed, these marginal fields were once more left uncultivated and converted into new woodland. Fire has been used in forest clearance since the very beginning of farming and animal husbandry, and was one of man's most efficient tools to control and suppress forests. In Finland and Sweden it was still used extensively in a "burnbeating", "slash-and-burn" or "swidden cultivation" system as late as the early 20th century. The system was particularly well developed in Finland, and was at times of utmost importance for the country's provision with grain (Figure 2.5). Both deciduous and coniferous forests seem to have provided the neces sary conditions for this type of agriculture. Cultivation was rotational, and, es pecially in coniferous forests, it demanded many years of hard labour to have merely one to four crops of rye. First, the trees were killed by stripping off their bark. After a period of about ten years, when an understorey of broad leaves was established, the burning took place. The crop, usually rye, was then sown in the ashes, and, after reaping, the area was used as pasture for a number of years. During this period it reverted to forest, and the rotation could be re peated (Figure 2.6). The "slash-and-burn" culture opened up the dark Fennoscandian spruce forests and made room for broadleaved pioneer species such as birch and al- Figure 2.6 Slash-and-burn rye cultivation photographed in Kihniö in the 19305. Photo: E. Nik kilä 1934. (Museovirasto, Helsinki). 24 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries der. In the vicinity of rural settlements, the landscape was therefore character ized by a far greater diversity than in the primeval coniferous woodland. This improved the living conditions for game, making hunting a feasible supple ment to agriculture. No matter how the alternation between a woodland state and cultivated clearings was organized, it generally seems to have improved soil quality. Even without the vegetation being burnt down. Earthworms are attracted by the litter from trees and bushes and its decomposition leads to an accumulation of nutrients in the topsoil. Furthermore, tunnels made by earthworms seem to contain large quantities of nitrogen-fixing bacteria. In cases where trees were cut down on a regular basis (as coppices or pollards), a subsequent decompo sition of roots would liberate additional nutrients. In densely populated parts of southern Scandinavia, there rarely were suf ficient woodland to exercise these various methods of long-term fallow agro forestry. Where access to common pastures made animal husbandry superior to agriculture, it was possible to maintain a system of permanently sown fields. Grazing and browsing livestock were brought back to the farm at milking time and during the night. In this way, nutrients from huge areas outside the village or farm were concentrated through manure from the livestock. The majority of Figure 2.1 Peasants taking a rest while mowing a meadow with scattered standards and sur rounded by dense thickets. The open field landscape dominating southern Scandinavia from the Middle Ages until the great Land Reforms in about 1800 was characterized by the coexist ence of several landscape types in the same area. In this case, the standards belonged to the landlord. The remote thickets were normally coppiced by the peasant, with little or no interfer ence by the landlord. Finally, the produce of the meadow beneath and in between the trees would pertain to the members of the village community. A drawing from the mid-18th century, attributed to C. A. Lorenzen. (The Museum of National History, Frederiksborg, Denmark). 25 A short history of forest uses these pastures were wooded, at least until the major 1 6th century deforestation (Figure 2.7). Preindustrial wood production The production of firewood and timber has always depended on the accessi bility, amplitude and quality of woodland resources. Since these resources, as a reflection of the general settlement structure, were rather unevenly distrib uted, wood production was organized in a number of different ways. And as local demands increased, wood production was further differentiated and, at times, forests were devastated. However, overall development can not simply be described as a transition from thoughtless exploitation to modern sustained yield forestry. Archaeological findings of large quantities of homogeneous poles and twigs in fences and road surfaces seem to indicate that some kind of under wood management providing a sustained and regular production of wood was well known in prehistoric times. It is thus very likely that the basic principles of sustained yield wood production were developed several thousand years ago. Through the centuries, still more sophisticated varieties of rotational cop pice management evolved. The regulated "Niederwaldwirtschaft" based on a rotation among well defined underwood compartments, and widespread in central and western Europe by the Middle Ages, apparently did not penetrate southern Scandinavia until the advent of modern forestry during the late 18th century. The greater part of wood production was used for domestic purposes by the rural population living in or nearby the forest. Until the 19th century, trees were normally cut down with axes and the further splitting or division into beams and boards was carried out with different types of saws and axes. Where wood production was not influenced by world market demands, there seems to have been little or no technological innovation since the Middle Ages. The diffusion of, for example, new felling techniques, using saws instead of axes was evidently very slow. Wood is a truly multi-functional material. Apart from meeting domestic demands for timber and fuelwood, forest trees provided raw materials for a great variety of local manufacturers. Coppices furnished the corn producing plains with poles and twigs to fence the fields against livestock and game. In coastal areas near Copenhagen, a quite considerable manufacturing of hoops took place. From the Russian Taiga, birch bark techniques for basketry etc. were imported to Finland, and then Finnish settlers passed them on to Sweden and the East-Norwegian Finnskog. In some localities early industries made very substantial demands on fuel wood. Most conspicuous were the Swedish and Norwegian mining districts, and the extensive Finnish regions of tar production, all developed during the Middle Ages but expanded immensely during the 16th century. In general, 26 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries none of these enterprises seem to have caused serious deforestation. They all provoked latent social skirmishes between industrial entrepreneurs and the lo cal peasant population wanting to use the woodland in the same way as the generations before them. It was in connection with the manufacturing of char coal for the Swedish mining industry that the first government attack on exten sive swidden cultivation was launched. The last notable confrontation between agriculture and wood production took place in Norrland less than one hundred years ago and in some parts of eastern and northern Finland just before World War I. Metal was originally extracted from deposits in bogs all over Scandinavia, but from the 16th century production was concentrated around Norwegian and Swedish ores of iron, silver and copper. Extraction of bog iron made a strong impact upon the forests in West Scandinavia, where the deposits were partic ularly well developed. The metallurgical industries connected with the mining areas also used large quantities of charcoal when manufacturing the ore. Dur ing the second half of 19th century approximately 5,000,000 m 3 of wood were annually converted to charcoal in Sweden. Charcoal was not exclusively burned in mining areas. Coals could be burned in both deciduous and conifer ous forests and even in Denmark charcoal burning seems to have been wide spread at least until the 17th century. With the extraction of ore (and particularly iron ore), pressure on the forests was transferred from western Scandinavia, which was by then almost woodless, to the mining regions in southern Norway and central Sweden (Figure 2.8). Wood as a commodity Already in prehistoric times some parts of northern Jutland in Denmark apparently relied on imported Norwegian fuelwood and turf. At least until the Figure 2.8 The location of mines (squares) and forges (dots) in the Swedish county of Värm land, north of Lake Vänern in 1600,1700 and 1800. Originally the forges were placed near the iron deposits in the eastern part of the county. As this profitable industry was built up it gradu ally spread all over the county (Rydbo & von Hofsten 1984). 27 A short history of forest uses Middle Ages woodland resources generally seem to have been distributed so that local scarcity could always be met by purely regional trade. As demands from abroad increased, wood production of many coastal areas of western Scandinavia nevertheless went into export. This submission to mercantile demands contributed to the introduction of new technologies which unavoid ably affected the subtle balances of traditional peasant forestry. As mentioned above, southwest Norway served as a timber and fuel ex porter even in prehistory. The production process was slow and incapable of creating any shortage of wood. Timber was cut with axes, and normally a full grown tree would be cut into 2 boards. In the very first years of the 16th cen tury, the first water driven sawmills appeared in Norway. They made it possi ble to divide a tree into 7-8 boards at a much higher speed than the old cutting, and within less than a century this simple technological innovation made tim ber export to western Europe flourish. In their quest for raw materials, sawmill owners gradually capitalized forest ownership. The escalating demands soon led to deforestation of vast areas along the coast making river floating from in land forests to the coastal ports imperative. In the centuries when Norwegian timber supplies supported the building and maintenance of the naval powers such as Great Britain, the Netherlands and the Danish-Norwegian monarchy itself, the same maritime demands made tar the most dominant export article of Finland. Much of the artillery of that same bellicose era originated from Swedish iron works using gigantic quantities of local charcoal. Because of incessant international demands, the manufacturing of these three woodland products (timber, tar, charcoal/iron) thus came to determine forest uses in large parts of early modern Scandinavia (.Figure 2.9). The production of tar and potash demanded huge quantities of wood, and tar burning from pine during the 18th century became one of Sweden's three major export industries. This trade climaxed during the following century. In Finland, the eastern parts first constituted the main area of tar production, but as later happened with timber, production from about 1720 moved northwards to Ostrobothnia and later to Kainuu and southern Lapland. The burning of pot ash from birch wood experienced a similar dislocation during the 1 9th century, and total annual exports of potash from the Västerbotten region amounted to no less than 4,500 tons (Figure 2.10). 2.3 Forestry, forest policies and woodland development Woodland as a cultural landscape Historical and regional differences among the woodland ecosystems of Scan dinavia did not only reflect natural diversities and climatic changes. They 28 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 2.9 Areas in Finland with intensive tar production in 1650 and 1750. As forest resources decreased the main areas of tar production were displaced from central-eastern Finland to wards more easily navigable areas in the Northwest (Appelroth 1987). also mirrored anthropogenuous effects originating from the immense variety of forest uses. The woodland formed a cultural landscape. Apparently prehistoric hunters had resorted to burning down stretches of woodland in connection with hunting of elk and wild reindeer. During the 17th and 18th century, the establishment of royal and noble deer parks in southern Scandinavia produced open forests consisting of scattered, old trees, the 29 A short history of forest uses branches of which characteristically ended at a browse-line approximately one and a half meters above the ground. Many forms of management affected the composition of species. The Finnish swidden cultivation produced a local dominance of broadleaved pio neer species such as birch, aspen and rowan. Only when the rotation period for various reasons was prolonged, the original coniferous state would reoccur. Heathland areas in western Scandinavia were recurrently burned down in or der to rejuvenate the heather plants, on which agriculture was based. The fire served to select the tree species, and as a consequence thickets of oak prevailed whereas beech in general disappeared. Also pannage seems to have affected the distribution of species signifi cantly. Swine would break up the soil and, since they avoided seedlings of beech, they favoured the growth of this species. In Denmark and southern Sweden, the gradual dominance of beech since the Iron Age was likely brought about by forest swine. During the 18th and 19th centuries, forest swine were deliberately used to reproduce stands of beech. Deforestation The most radical effect of traditional multiple-use forestry was the disappear ance of extensive areas of woodland. The process of deforestation was neither equally intensive in all parts of Scandinavia nor one of incessant destruction. Figure 2.10 The production of tar and pitch demanded huge quantities of wood. Total removal of growing stock due to the production of tar and pitch exported from Oulu and Raahe from the 1620s to 1910, and the share of North Ostrobothnia (Alho 1968). 30 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Its momentum differed, as mentioned above, according to factors such as the density of population, technological abilities, economic setting and the socio political organization of society. The first sign of serious deforestation was evident in a shortage of timber and fuelwood. Historical records seemingly establishing a shortage or even deficiency of wood products are not altogether credible. Alarming outcries in 17th century literature most frequently attest fears for the future rather than immediate scar city. Defective supplies did not necessarily reflect inadequate resources but could also be the result of an exorbitant price level or insufficient means of transportation. Clearings for settlement and agriculture had the most permanent impact on the distribution of Scandinavian woodland. Consequently, deforestation accel erated in areas and periods of population pressure and wherever market trends favoured corn-growing. In southern Scandinavia, this was the case both in the 16th and the 18th centuries. The conclusive reduction of the Danish forest acreage from 7%t0 4 % during the last decades of 1 8th century took place in conjunction with radical land reforms. The most remarkable deforestation took place in Iceland. By the time of the Norwegian settlement ("Landnam") in the 9th and 10th centuries, the veg etation was largely dominated by birch forests. The greater part of this prime val woodland disappeared through the Late Middle Ages as the result of an enormous demand for fuelwood (e.g. for the significant Icelandic salt produc tion and burning of charcoal) combined with burdensome sheep grazing. To day only insignificant relics are preserved. To talk about regional or even general lack of wood in northern Europe during the Middle Ages is obviously an exaggeration. Examples of local wood shortage generally occurred in Scandinavia one or two hundred years later than in central Europe. Fuel deficiency had become a problem in German min ing areas during the late 17th century and legislative and silvicultural measures were taken to protect their surrounding forests. Early Swedish and Norwegian decrees (during the first half of the 17th century) were aimed particularly at the naval shipyards and the mining areas (as in Central Europe), while decrees from the latter part of that century had more general objectives. The Danish Forest Acts, of which no less than 6 were issued between 1665 and 1733, sought to protect the forests in general, but with the royal inclination towards hunting and game keeping as strong underlying motives. This difference between Norway and Sweden, on the one hand, and Den mark, on the other, can be explained by the fact that Denmark very early on became a timber importing country. Danish export of oak was prohibited for strategic reasons during the 1 5th century, while the export of wood products such as tar and potash early became important sources of income for both Nor way and Sweden. Whereas there was no real risk of timber shortage in the Swedish monarchy, Denmark rested heavily upon Norwegian supplies. 31 A short history of forest uses Causes of deforestation Forests do not disappear simply because the major trees are cut down. Hence the exploitation of forest trees for charcoal, fuelwood or timber cannot by itself explain the temporal or permanent deforestation of large parts of (espe cially southern and western) Scandinavia. This negative process could be understood only as the concurrent effects of several forest uses. Only the combination of, for example, poor soil, excessive cutting and constantly immoderate grazing or deliberate grubbing and cultivation could lead to a total conversion of woodland to treeless plain. Woodland is the favourite habitat of many Scandinavian game species, and hunting is the oldest of all forest uses. Partly because of this affinity, the royal Danish administration of hunting and forestry remained closely connect ed until the late 18th century. Game preservation was one of the most signifi cant duties of the forest rangers. Consequently, during the 18th century many attempts to introduce silviculture in Danish forests were hampered by enor mous population of protected deer. Modern forestry thus was unable to make its mark until effective campaigns of deer elimination had been carried through in the 17905. On the other hand, it cannot be ignored that larger pred ators such as the wolves, widespread in most of Scandinavia (but eliminated in Denmark in about 1820), could have curtailed local attempts to use wood pasture, thus protecting the forest against harmful domestic animals. Browsing cattle are normally regarded as the chief accelerator of the in contestable deforestation of southern and western Scandinavia during the 17th and 18th centuries. Even if this explanation is basically sound, it needs modi fication. A great number of southern Scandinavian wood pastures did degenerate to stands of scattered old boilings and lifeless trunks or even to treeless plains, simply because cattle hampered regeneration and the establishment of a vig orous understorey. However, this development was not universal. Several ex amples can be found of wooded commons surviving the continuous grazing pressure. The detrimental effects to trees and bushes depended first and foremost upon the actual number of grazing animals. Secondly, the grazing period had an influence on the amount of damage, since young sprouts are most vulnera ble during the springtime. Thirdly, the animal species significantly determined the extent of tree browsing. For example, the goat, being a renowned tree kill er, was banned from royal Danish forests in the 16th century. Finally not all trees were equally damaged by browsing animals, partly because of the ani mals' likes and dislikes, and partly owing to different species' dissimilar power of resistance. Oak being on the one hand more resistant than beech but on the other much more favoured as a nutrient. Together these factors largely differ entiated the effect of wood pastures upon the tree cover. 32 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries In most areas of eastern Denmark and southern and east-central Sweden, the arable land rotated annually between states of cultivation and fallow. In years of fallow as well as every autumn after harvest, arable land was used as pasture. Since fields normally consisted of mosaics comprising a multitude of small and large trees and bushes, they also formed a sort of forest pasture. In contrast to the extensive commons, it seems that the cultivated infields gener ally were better preserved than the outfields. The disappearance of trees in the infields was usually due to escalating agricultural needs rather than to damage caused by browsing animals. Even though wood production could not by itself cause major deforesta tion prior to the 19th century, forestry was, in large parts of Scandinavia, dom inated by an increasing disparity between wood production and regrowth. This imbalance was most evident in southern Scandinavia, where the rapidly grow ing population placed ever increasing demands on fuelwood and timber. The timber exporting coastal regions of Norway and the mining districts of central Sweden also experienced shortages. During the 16th and 17th centuries, a se ries of royal acts decreed forest preservation and silvicultural measures, but generally they were ineffectual. The main reason for this vivid legislative ac tivity was not the alleged, all-embracing wood shortage but rather fear in duced by the prospects of failing supplies for an expanding centralistic state apparatus. Thus, forestry soon turned into one of the most favoured domains of absolutist power play. The political economy of deforestation First the need for timber, and then the problem of fuel shortage, formed the background for an ideologically tinted forest concern formulated as politics and legal intervention. The first instances appeared in Denmark during the late 15th century. During the following centuries wood shortage became a serious problem in large areas of southern and western Scandinavia. Since the earliest royal acts of the Middle Ages, the primary purpose of forestry regulation was to maintain the woodland resources by securing their reproduction, and to safeguard an unimpeded fuel and timber supply for the Crown. This objective first became clearly formulated when and where scar city (initially of timber) threatened. Even in 15th century Norway, the govern ment would incite farmers to practise swidden cultivation in order to increase arable land area, whereas the forest laws of the following century explicitly prohibited this practice, for the benefit of escalating timber exports. Mean while this export was zealously regulated for strategic reasons. As can be learned from modern Third World experiences, restrictions in traditional for est uses only function when the average living standard of the population has reached a certain minimum level. So, for centuries protective efforts were mostly futile. 33 A short history of forest uses At times, other interests than protection and woodland regeneration influ enced forest politics. In large parts of northern Scandinavia, the early modern states encouraged colonization of uninhabited woodland areas for a number of reasons. In Sweden, to secure a supply of charcoal for the iron works and in Finland to establish permanent settlements, that could be taxed as farmland by the monarchy. Another consequence of the imminent scarcity of timber and fuelwood was the severely limited access to utilize the forests of notably densely popu lated areas during the 15th and 16th centuries. Whereas all sorts of forest uses during the Prehistorical and Medieval era of expansion had been common goods, the development of property rights, and escalating social and political inequality, induced decisive restrictions on access to woodland resources. In northern Scandinavia, forestry continued to be free for centuries, but in the south ordinary tenants would normally only have the right to specific forest us es. For instance, the use of timber and mast trees (oak and beech) was restrict ed to the landlords, while coppice continued as a specific "peasant right". However, none of the early ventures to control traditional Scandinavian multiple-use forestry managed to prevent accelerating deforestation. Attempts were made to protect the forests and to assure their regeneration, but they only succeeded on a very modest scale. This, again, could be due to the fact that the farmers either considered the forest resources inexhaustible, or that they (in the areas of southern Scandinavia where deforestation was most vigorous) did not own their forests. Furthermore, the confusion of pasture, pannage and wood liberties made it virtually impossible to find a common denominator that could assure an overall strategy which would preserve and improve the forest. Early modern deforestation caused a distinctive differentiation among the Scandinavian countries. The southern and Atlantic parts became importers of forest products, whereas the Norwegian, the North Swedish and the Finnish forests, through the application of sustained yield principles, seized their present dominant place in the world market of timber. 2.4 The advent of sustained yield forestry Coppicing was common in early Scandinavian woodland management and has in many areas been used to secure a stable yield of specific wood prod ucts. Balanced swidden cultivation also was a form of sustained yield forest use. The first attempts to introduce a modern system of sustained yield wood production in Scandinavia were made in the 17305. German forestry experts, headed by the von Langen brothers, were engaged by the Danish/Norwegian king. Their main task was to get the Norwegian forests under a regular man agement system (with a particular view to mining areas). The intentions were good, and a lot of work was done, not least in producing high quality maps. 34 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries However, the forest owners and particularly the Norwegian farmers, could not accept the restraints placed upon their forest uses, and the initiative faded dur ing the 17405. A similar attempt was made on a smaller scale in Denmark from 1763, when Johann Georg von Langen was appointed by the Danish King to intro duce his forest management system in the royal forests of Denmark. Even if this attempt was far from being carried through, it coincided with Danish land reforms, which eventually separated forestry from farming in Denmark. A new era was opened up in Danish forestry, and sustained yield management principles were adopted for most of Denmark's forests during the first fifty years of the 19th century. Until the middle of the 19th century, the impact of milling was limited to areas with sufficient and exploitable waterpower. With the advent of steam mills around 1850, mills could be located in any area where the transport of timber was most economical, and milling became independent from fluctuat ing waterflow in the rivers. The strong increase in export of timber and other forest products led to increased pressure on the forests of Fennoscandia, and at the end of the 19th century deforestation was considered a real threat to so ciety. As late as 1914, Johan B. Bull wrote about the Norwegian forests: "Nor wegian timber is declining in dimension as rapidly as the amount of exported timber is increasing, and if an immediate change by rational silviculture is not brought about, the Norwegian realm of forests, protector of our climate, breathtakingly beautiful and highly original will soon be only a saga" (freely translated from Tveite 1964). However, when the Norwegian forests were in ventoried during the 19205, the total yearly increment proved to be about 4 % superior to yearly harvesting (Figures 2.11, 2.12). Similar situations could be found in Finland and Sweden. Accordingly, the Scandinavian forests were not disappearing, but they had lost a considerable part of their big and marketable timber trees. The need for sustained yield man agement was recognized both by state and private forestry. The silvicultural systems, which had been introduced from Central Europe since the beginning of the 1 9th century, were now developed and adapted to Scandinavian condi tions. Selective cuttings by measures were, from the beginning of the 20th cen tury, replaced by natural regeneration cuttings. With the advent of mechanized logging - in the middle of the 20th century - clearcuttings followed by plant ing became generalized. These clearcuttings often covered large areas, and they have in many cases proved difficult to regenerate, particularly in environ ments where small changes in microclimate can be crucial to the establishment of seedlings and young plants. For example, there have been problems in for ests near the timberline, which in some areas have been severely reduced due to badly regenerated clearcuttings since the middle of the 20th century. Sustained yield management was introduced much earlier in Denmark, which had faced the threat of complete deforestation during the late 1 8th cen tury. The decisive turn was made by the Forestry Act of 1805, by which all 35 A short history of forest uses Figures 2.11 and 2.12 The appearance of the waterpowered sawmill at the beginning of the 16th century caused a tremendous increase in the export of timber from Finland, Norway and Sweden. An old sawmill above. Floating was the most important way of transporting timber in Scandinavia until the middle of the 20th century. Photos by M. Risdal (1967) from the Arendal River Basin, Telemark, Norway. 36 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries high forests in Denmark were preserved and exploitation of the forests was strictly regulated. Simultaneously, a reforestation programme was launched, slowly at first, but gathering momentum during the latter part of the 1 9th cen tury, so that the forest area of Denmark by the middle of the 20th century had doubled compared to its area in 1805. New forest tree species had been intro duced (e.g. by von Langen in 1763), and in terms of acreage Norway spruce was now the most important species in Danish forestry. In contrast to Denmark, forest legislation was much more liberal in Fin land, Norway and Sweden, first of all because forest products were among the main export articles. The Finnish forest ordinance of 1805, for instance, per mitted private owners the free use of their forests as long as the forests were not destroyed and the ability to pay taxes was maintained. Plantation forestry was started in the other Scandinavia countries during the late 19th century. For example, in western Sweden plantations were estab lished to combat drifting sands. From the beginning of the 20th century, plan tation forestry gathered momentum in West Norway, where Sitka spruce (.Picea sitchensis) became important. Later in the century, plantation forestry became widespread in the rest of Scandinavia in connection with rationalized logging procedures, and more exotic species were introduced into forestry, such as Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), which has been planted on a large scale, particularly in northern Sweden. Planting of trees and plantation forestry was initiated in Iceland and on the Faeroe Islands around the beginning of the 20th century. The plantings have been successful, particularly during the last 40 years, even if modest in extent. In southwest Greenland, promising results have also been obtained in planting trials during the last 40 years, but so far with limited commercial prospects. 2.5 Forests for leisure and modern multiplicity Forests have probably always inspired the human imagination and they have served as a place for refuge in times of trouble. Kings and noblemen com bined pleasure and necessity by hunting in the forests, outlaws and persecuted minorities found shelter in the wilderness, people inspired by religious ideals of hermitage combined introspection with woodmanship, and to ordinary people the woodlands represented a vividly imaginative environment. The forest was simultaneously captivating and perilous. When modern methods of forest management in the 1 9th century began to change the forest picture of Scandinavia, man's role in the forest changed as well. From being a natural and indispensable part of most peoples lives, the forest became a source and producer of raw material for the forest industry and it gradually became a field of action for specialists. But, like in other industri alized regions of the world, increasing urbanization created a need for renewed contact with nature. This has in many areas submitted the forests to such a 37 A short history of forest uses strong pressure that new ideas had to be developed, and foresters had to revise many of their traditional views on forest management. In the most densely populated areas of Scandinavia, forestry is now a mixture of park- and land scape management and traditional commercial forestry. A lot of different uses must be reconciled. This modern multiple-use forestry is completely different from the multi ple uses of former times, before the forest was conquered by man. At that time people passed through the forests and left their imprints in the form of winding tracks, traces of work and fire, and they came to the forests all year round, and at all times. Nowadays, people are more or less guided, when they visit the for ests. They follow roads or tracks which have been conceived and established according to management plans. Most people do not visit the forests as part of their everyday activity. As a result of this development, the forests of Scandi navia have again become common "property" due to improved means of ac cess, and above all due to a more affluent society. References Alho, P. 1968. Pohjois-Pohjanmaan metsien käytön kehitys ja sen vaikutus metsien tilaan. Summary: Utilization of forests in North Ostrobothnia and its effect on their condition. Acta Forestalia Fennica 89. 216 pp. Andersen, S.T., Aaby, B. & Odgaard, B. 1983. Environment and man: current studies in vegetational history at the Geological Survey of Denmark. Journal of Dan ish Archaeology 2: 184-196. Appelroth, S.-E. 1987. Nine thousand years of forests in Finland. Paper presented at the lUFRO s 1.05-12 Symposium "Northern Forest Silviculture and Manage ment", in Lapland, August 16-22, 1987. 7 pp. Bjerke, S. 1957. Nogle trask af de sydskandinaviske lovskoves udvikling i de sidste ärhundreder. (A few features of the development of South-Scandinavian broadleaved forests during the recent centuries.) Dansk Dendrologisk Arsskrift IV: 373—413. (In Danish.) Björklund, J. 1984. From the Gulf of Bothnia to the White Sea. The Scandinavian Economic History Review No. 1. Björklund, J. & Östlund, L. (eds.). 1992. Norrländsk skogshistoria: människan, sko gen och industrin. (The history of forest in Norrland: people, forest and indus try.) Umeä Universitet/Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Umeä. 120 pp. (In Swedish.) Blöndal, S. 1982. Fremmede treslag i Hallormstad skogomräde, Öst-Island. (Foreign tree species in Flallormstad forest area in East Iceland.) Tidsskrift for Skog bruk 1. Oslo. Repr. 11 pp. (In Norwegian.) Blöndal, S. 1988. Skov og skovdyrkning pä Island. (Forests and forestry in Iceland.) Dansk Natur Dansk Skole. Arsskrift 1987/88: 75-86. (In Danish.) Blöndal, S. 1991. Socioeconomic importance of forests in Iceland. In: Alden, J., Mastrantonio, J.L. & Odum, S. (eds.). Forest development in cold climates. Plenum Press, New York. 13 pp. 38 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Buttenschon, J. & Buttenschon, R.M. 1978. The effects of browsing by cattle and sheep on trees and bushes. Natura Jutlandica 20: 79-93. Carbonnier, C. 1978. Skogarnas värd och föryngring. (Silviculture and regeneration.) In: Skogshögskolan 150 är: problem och ideer i svenskt skogbruk 1828-1978. (The faculty of forestry 150 years: problems and ideas in Swedish forestry 1828-1978.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Uppsala, p. 85-126. (In Swedish.) Cate, C.L. ten 1972. Wan god mast gift.... Bilder aus der Geschichte der Schweine zucht im Walde. Wageningen. 300 pp. Emanuelsson, U. 1987. Översikt över det nordiska kulturlandskapet. (Overview of the Nordic cultural landscape.) In: Biotoper i det nordiske kulturlandskapet. (Biotopes in the Nordic cultural landscape.) Nordiska ministerrädet, Miljörap port 6/ Nordrapport 63:13-52. (In Swedish.) Emanuelsson, U. 1988. The relationship of different agricultural systems to the forest and woodlands of Europe. In: Salbitano, F. (ed.). Human influence on forest ecosystems development in Europe. Proceedings of a workshop held in Trento, Italy, 26-29 September, 1988. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna, p. 169-178. Erixon, S. 1955. Djurfangst och jakt samt insamling av vegetabilska födoämnen under nyare tid. (Capturing animals, hunting and gathering of plants for food during the newer time.) Nordisk Kultur XI-XIIa: 110-123. (In Swedish.) Erixon, S. 1956. Lantbruket under historisk tid med särskild hänsyn till bondetradi tionen. (Agriculture during the historical time, especially from the point of view of the peasant tradition.) Nordisk Kultur XIII: 43-215. (In Swedish.) Fritzboger, B. 1988. Forestry in crisis: society in crisis. Economic and ecological consequences and restrictions in the peasant forestry: Falster, Denmark 1660- 1685. In: Salbitano, F. (ed.). Human influence on forest ecosystems develop ment in Europe. Proceedings of a workshop held in Trento, Italy, 26-29 Sep tember, 1988. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna, p. 349-352. Fritzboger, B. 1989. Skove og skovbrug pä Falster 1652-1685. (Forests and forestry in Falster 1652-1685.) Landbohistorisk Selskab, Odense. 311 pp. (In Danish.) Fritzboger, B. 1992. Danske skove 1500-1800: en landskabshistorisk undersogelse. (Danish forests 1500-1800: a landscape history study.) Odense. 345 pp. (In Danish.) Fritzboger, B. 1993. Dansk skovhistorie. (Danish forest history.) Kgl. Veterinaer- og Landbohojskole, Kobenhavn. 324 pp. (In Danish.) Gärdö, M.B. 1991. Bevarande av kulturmiljöer vid skogsbruk. (Preserving cultural milieus in forestry.) Riksantikvarieämbetet, P.M. 26 pp. (In Swedish.) Gissel, S. et al. 1981. Desertion and land colonization in the Nordic countries c. 1300-1600: comparative report from the Scandinavian research project on deserted farms and villages. Almqvist & Wiksell, Stockholm. 304 pp. Haglund, B. (ed.). 1955. Den levande skogen. (The living forest.) Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Hamilton, H. 1988. 175 är: ett skogsbruk vaknar längsamt och reser pä sig. (175 years: forestry wakes up slowly and gets up.) Kungl. Skogs- och Lantbruk sakademiens Tidskrift, Supplement 20: 7-30. (In Swedish.) Harstveit, A. 1989. Fangstmannsminne. (Hunting memories.) Aslak Harstveit fortel til Andreas Vevstad. Amli. 95 pp. (In Norwegian.) 39 A short history of forest uses Huse, S. 1990. Litt om Norges skogforhold i fortid og nätid, med sasrlig vekt pä deres rolle for kulturlandskabet. (Little about Norwegian forest situation in the past and today, with special emphasis on its role in cultural landscape.) Nordisk Bygd 4: 2-3. (In Norwegian.) Hustich, I. 1979. Ecological concepts and biogeographical zonation in the North: the need for a generally accepted terminology. Holarctic Ecology 2: 208-217. Iversen, J. 1973. The Development of Denmark's Nature since the last Glacial. D.G.U. Ser. V 7-C. 126 pp. Jakobsen, B. 1972-73. Skovens betydning for landbrugets udvikling i Danmark indtil ca. 1300. (The importance of forests for the development of agriculture in Denmark until c. 1300.) Det Forstlige Forsogsvassen i Danmark, Rapport 33: 345-396. (In Danish.) Johannesson, T. 1955. Näringsfang och därmed sammenhörande bebyggelse pä Island under Medeltiden. (Subsistence hunting and the related settlements in Iceland during the Middle Ages.) Nordisk Kultur XI-XIIa: 103-109. (In Swedish.) Jorgensen, E.L. & Nielsen, P.C. 1964. Nordsjasllands skove gennem 200 är. (The for ests of Nordsjaslland during 200 years.) Kobenhavn. (In Danish.) Jutikkala, E. 1963. Bonden i Finland genom tiderna. (Peasants in Finland through the ages.) LT, Helsingfors. 523 pp. (In Swedish.) Kaland, P.E. 1979. Landskapsutvikling og bosetningshistorie i Nordhordlands lyn ghei-omräde. (The development of landscape and settling history in Nord hordland's lynghei region.) In: Fladly, R. & Sandnes, J. (eds.). Pä leiting etter den eldste garden. Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. p. 41-70. (In Norwegian.) Kardell, L. 1976. Skogsägandet genom tiderna. (Forest ownership through the ages.) Skogsägaren 54(10): (ln Swedish.) Kardell, L. 1976. Svedjebruket. (Shifting cultivation.) Skogsägaren 54(5): 27-30. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. 1988. Skogsvärdens uppkomst. (The origin of forestry.) Kungl. Skogs och Lantbruksakademiens Tidskrift 127(3): 163-181. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L., Dehlen, R. & Anderssen, B. 1980. Svedjebruk förr och nu. (Shifting cul tivation in the past and today.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 20. 92 pp. (In Swedish.) Koch, N.E. & Kennedy, J.J. 1991. Multiple-use forestry for social values. Ambio 20(7): 330-333. Leikola, M. 1987. Metsien hoidon aatehistoria. Summary: Leading ideas in Finnish silviculture. Silva Fennica 21: 332-341. Linkola, M. 1988. The influence of the slash-and-burn cultivation on forest ecosys tems and forest landscapes in Finland. In: Salbitano, F. (ed.). Human influence on forest ecosystems development in Europe. Proceedings of a workshop held in Trento, Italy, 26-29 September, 1988. Pitagora Editrice, Bologna, p. 79-89. Linkola, M. 1988. Skogen som finländskt kulturlandskap. (Forest as cultural land scape in Finland.) Nord Nytt 33/34: 71-80. (In Swedish.) Malmström, C. 1939. Hallands skogar under de senaste 300 ären. (Halland's forests during the past 300 years.) Meddelande frän Statens Skogsförsöksanstalt 31: 171-300. Stockholm. (In Swedish.) 40 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Miettinen, M. 1991. Skogens kulturhistorie i Finland. (The cultural history of forests in Finland.) Lommen - Kontaktblad för Nordiska Förbundet för Kulturland skap 4: 24-25. (In Swedish.) Nielsen, P.C. 1986. Mindesmsrker og nyere litteratur om Johann Georg von Langen. (Memorials and newer literature about Johann Georg von Langen.) Ärbok for Norsk Skogbruksmuseum, Nr. 11. Elverum. p. 37-62. (In Danish.) Nielsen, P.C. 1990. Skovhistorie 1. (Forest history 1.) Kgl. Veterinaer- og Landbo hojskole, Kobenhavn. (New edition by P. Sondergaard). 378 pp. (In Danish.) Nordström, O. 1991. Resursen historikerna glömt. (The resource forgotten by histori ans.) Skog & Forskning 1: 30-36. (In Swedish.) Odgaard, B. 1988. Heathland history in western Jutland, Denmark. In: Birks, H.J.B. (ed.). The cultural landscape - past - present - future. Cambridge, p. 311-319. Ödum, S. 1991. Choice of species and origins for arboriculture in Greenland and the Faeroe Islands. Dansk Dendrologisk Ärsskrift bd. IX: 1-78. Oksbjerg, E. 1989. Alminding, faellesskov og overdrev. (Common agricultural land, common forest and common pasture.) Museerne i Viborg Amt 15: 73-80. (In Danish.) Rackham, O. 1980. Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses in England. Edward Arnold, London. 402 pp. Reunala, A. 1984. Some aspects of social and psychological importance of forests in Finland. In: Kaiser, F., Schweitzer, D. & Brown, P. (eds.). Proceedings for economic value analysis of multiple-use forestry. Oregon State University, Corvallis. p. 55-64. Romell, L.G. 1966. Röjningsbruket och dess hemlighet. (Clearing forestry and its secret.) YmerÄrsbok. p. 183-195. (In Swedish.) Rubner, K. 1960. Grundlagen des Waldbaues. Neumann Verlag, Berlin. 620 pp. Rydbo, F. & von Flofsten, E. 1984 (1979). Skoven og mennesket pä kollisionskurs? (Forest and people coming into collision?) Kobenhavn. 189 pp. (In Danish.) Selander, S. 1955. Det levande landskapet i Sverige. (The living landscape in Swe den.) Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Sjöbeck, M. 1927. Bondskogar, deres värd och utnyttjande. (The management and utilization of farmforests.) Skanska Folkminnen Arsbok. p. 36-62. (In Swed ish.) Sjöbeck, M. 1933. Lövängskulturen i Sydsverige: dess uppkomst, utveckling och tilbagegäng. (Broadleaf meadow culture in southern Sweden: its development and decline.) Ymer 53: 33-66. (In Swedish.) Smith, T. 1960. Ivy, Mistletoe and Elm-Climate Indicators Fodder-Plants. D.G.U.. Ser. 11. 66: 1-65. Stridsberg, E. 1988. Den skogshistoriska forskningens objekt och problemställningar. (Definitions of objectives and problems in forest history research.) Kungl. Skogs-och Lantbruksakademiens Tidskrift 127(3): 183-193. (In Swedish.) Stridsberg, E. & Mattsson, L. 1980. Skogen genom tiderna: dess roll för lantbruket frän forntid till nutid. (Forestry through the ages: its importance to agriculture in the past and today.) Stockholm. (In Swedish.) 41 A short history of forest uses Sveli, A. 1987. Skogbruk i Nord-Norge: strejftog gjennom historien. (Forestry in northern Norway: a journey through the history.) Nord-Norges Skogmanns forbund, Mosjoen. 504 pp. (In Norwegian.) Tenow, O. 1974. Det nordiska skoglandskapets och skogbrukets utveckling fram till 1900—talet: en kort översikt. (The development of the Nordic forest landscape and forestry up till 19th century: a short overview.) The Swedish Coniferous Forest Project "Barrskogslandskapets ekologi", Internal Report 2. Uppsala. 34 pp. (In Swedish.) Thorarinsson, Th. 1974. Thjodin lifdi in skogurin do. (The people lived but the for ests died.) Arsrit Skograsktar felags Islands, p. 16-29. (In Icelandic.) Tuxen, O. & Hellesen, J.K. (eds.). 1988. Historisk Atlas Danmark. (Historical atlas of Denmark.) Copenhagen. (In Danish.) Tveite, S. 1960. Engelsk-Norsk Trelasthandel 1640-1710. (English-Norwegian tim ber trade 1640-1710.) Bergen-Oslo. (In Norwegian.) Tveite, S. 1964. Skogbrukshistorie. (History of forestry.) In: Seip, H.K. (ed.). Skog bruksbokabd. 3. Skogekonomi. Oslo. p. 16-76. (In Norwegian). Tveite, S. 1964. Skogbrukshistorie. Kompendium. (History of forestry. A handbook.) Norges Landbrukshogskole, As. 125 pp. (In Norwegian.) Tvengsberg, P.M. 1988. Finnskogen brakes. Bonder, finner og godseieres utnyttelse av granskogsomrädene pä Östlandet i Norge 1600-1900. (Forestry in Finnskogen. Peasants, Finns and farmowners' utilization of spruce forest areas in Östlandet in Norway 1600-1900.) Nord Nytt 33/34: 59-70. (In Norwe gian.) Vestergaard, P. (ed.). 1987. Kulsvierlandet. Kobenhavn. 191 pp. (In Danish.) Vevstad, A. 1992. Norsk Skogpolitikk: streiftog i det 20. ärhundre. (Norwegian forest policy: developments in the 20th century.) 296 pp. (In Norwegian.) Weismann, C. 1900. Skove og skovbrug pä Fyn i det nittende ärhundrede. (Forests and forestry in Fyn in the 19th century.) Odense. 172 pp. (In Danish.) Worsoe, E. 1979. Staevningsskovene. Kobenhavn. (In Danish.) Zackrisson, O. 1977. Influence of forest fires on the North Swedish boreal forest. Oikos 29: 22-32. Zackrisson, O. 1979. Dendroekologiska metoder att spära tidigare kulturinflytande i den norrländska barrskogen. (Dendroecological methods for defining former impacts of culture on the coniferous forests of Norrland.) Fornvännen 74: 260-268. (In Swedish.) 42 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 43 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept 3 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Marjatta Hytönen 1 Abstract Origins of the multiple-use approach can be found in Germany and in the United States of America. The concept became frequent in Scandinavian for estry vocabularies after the Fifth World Forestry Congress held in Seattle in 1960. The main part of the article describes interpretations of the concept in the Nordic countries from the 19605. A general trend in the definitions has been a move away from the listing of products and functions to defining prob lems and setting goals. Also the components of multiple use have changed. The new objectives of forest management include carbon sequestration and preservation of biological diversity. Nowadays, multiple use is regularly men tioned in policy programs and action plans. Recently, international agree ments on sustainable forestry have given a new demanding context to the experience obtained in the field of multiple use. Realization of the ideals of ecologically, economically and socially sustainable multiple-use forestry requires adjustments in practical forestry as well as development of new for est policy practices. Keywords: multiple-use definitions, history, research, forest policy, debate, sustainable forestry. 1 Finnish Forest Research Institute Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland 44 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 3.1 Too abstract to be useful? The concept "multiple-use forestry" has been frequently used in the Nordic countries for about 30 years. However, there still exists confusion as to its meaning. Hultman (1984) argues that in Sweden the concept has not been defined and that is why it is not applied either. According to Koch and Kris tiansen (1991), foresters have been using the concept as a kind of magic excuse ("trylleformular") to justify almost any decision concerning forests in Denmark. Hoen (1991 b) claims that the concept is still hanging in the air ("henger i lufta") in Norway. A Finn, Lindqvist (1979), warns that the multi ple-use concept, if used carelessly, may lead to quite unexpected results which run contrary to the intended purposes. Despite problems in defining the concept, multiple use has established it self in forestry and environmental vocabularies. Nowadays it is regularly men tioned in policy programs, action plans and even in law texts. The reasons behind the need for such a multi-dimensional approach include the diverse de mands for material and non-material forest products and the change in the use of forest resources from uncoordinated utilization to modern planning and management oriented forestry. This chapter aims to clarify the contents and use of the "multiple-use for estry" -concept. First there is a short description of the development of multi ple-use principles in Germany and in the United States of America. The main part of the text deals with interpretations of the concept in the Nordic countries from the 19605. The article is completed with a discussion on the relationship of multiple use and the new concept of sustainable forestry. 3.2 Origins of the concept Germany The scientific basis for multiple use was clarified significantly in Germany in the 19505. Viktor Dieterich, professor of forestry in the University of Munich, elaborated a theory about forest functions which he published in 1953 in a book called "Forstwirtschaftspolitik" (Forestry policy). According to him, a prerequisite of succesful forestry is knowledge of the complex interrelation ships between forests and people as well as an understanding of the impor tance of forest to economy and welfare (Dieterich 1953). Consequently, forest policy should be based on the functions of forests. These functions have, after Dieterich's time been arranged in many connections into three main catego ries: utilization (Nutz), recreation (Erholung) and protection (Schutz) (e.g. Hasel 1971). The German forestry law of 1975 uses the same categories (Welp 1993). History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept 45 Hasel (1971) states that Dieterich replaced the previous static way of prac tising forestry characterized by unintegrated measures by a new dynamic ap proach. Niesslein (1985) claims that Dieterich gave German forestry a new social dimension. Niesslein himself uses the multiple-use concept ("Me hrzweckforstwirtschaft"). According to him it refers to the relationship be tween the multiple functions of forest and the expectations of the various interest groups in society. These two interactive factors often lead to conflict situations. The German forestry ideas were well known in the Nordic countries before the Second World War. After that, contacts of Nordic foresters with German forestry decreased and North American forestry ideas started to become more influential (e.g. Saastamoinen 1988). United States of America The philosophy of multiple use started to evolve in the USA in the beginning of the 19th century. In 1905, the Forest Service was established by transfer ring the administration of national forests from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture. Gifford Pinchot was the first chief of the Forest Service. His ideas accelerated the evolution of the present multiple use approach. He considered wood, water and forage to be the main products of forests and wrote that "where conflicting interests must be reconciled the question will always be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number of people in the long run" (Gregory 1987). After the establishment of the Forest Service, the multiple-use concept was repeatedly debated in forestry periodicals (e.g. Dana 1943, Pearson 1944, McArdle 1953, Gregory 1955). Leary (1987) calls the concept "perennially troublesome" in his short review dealing with the establishment of the term in the North American vocabulary. Despite the controversies, multiple use became an official concept in 1960, when the Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act (MUSY-Act) was passed. The initiator of the law was the Forest Service. It had been under increasing pressure from conflicting timber production and conservation interests. Be cause of this pressure, working principles had to be clarified. The law requires the Forest Service to afford "due consideration" to non-wood forest-based re sources such as recreation, water, wildlife, range, and fisheries in its manage ment efforts. According to Wilkinson and Anderson (1987), the law has been implemented mainly through increasing the share of recreation, wildlife and watershed management in planning. The MUSY-Act defines multiple use in the following way: "Multiple use means the management of all the various renewable surface resources of the national forests so that they are utilized in the combination that will best meet the needs of the American people, making the most judicious use of the land for some or all of these resources or related services over areas large enough 46 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 3.1 The theme of the Fifth World Forestry Congress in Seattle, 1960 (Proceedings., 1962). to provide sufficient latitude for periodic adjustments in the use to conform to changing needs and conditions; that some land will be used for less than all of the resources; and harmonious and coordinated management of the various re sources, each with the other, without impairment of the productivity of the land, with consideration being given to the relative values of the various re sources, and not necessarily the combination of uses that will give the greatest dollar return or the greatest unit output" (Gregory 1987). Two months after the passing of the MUSY-Act, the Fifth World Con gress of Forestry was held in Seattle under the title "Multiple use of forest lands" (Figure 3.1). Through the congress, the principles of the MUSY-Act reached a wider public. The meeting increased the interest towards multiple use considerably also in the Nordic countries (Saari 1962, Helles 1983 a, Hult man 1984, Saastamoinen 1988, Koch & Kennedy 1991). 3.3 Nordic countries Denmark Multiple-use theories were introduced to Denmark by forest economist Finn Helles. In 1977, he published an article in which he discusses the theory of determining the optimal combination of forest products to maximize net reve nue (Helles 1977). In 1978, he wrote a paper about the external effects of for estry, which he considers to be essential components of multiple use (Helles 1978). Five years later he tells about the Seattle Congress and discusses the applicability of the US concept to Denmark in a periodical "Skoven". He con cludes that the most prominent forest use in Danish conditions, besides tim ber production, is outdoor recreation. Protective functions of forests and for est grazing are less important. He also emphasizes and analyzes interest con flicts in multiple use (Helles 1983 b). In another article from 1983, Helles states that the main idea in multiple use is to coordinate different interests which in principle are equal from soci- 47 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept ety's viewpoint. In older times, many functions of forests (e.g. recreation en vironments and protection provided by forests) were abundant and taken for granted. Recently they have become deliberately produced services. As a con sequence of this change, it is necessary to include new branches in the decision making of forestry and resource allocation in society. In this socially and po litically oriented article, Helles divides the multiple-use functions which are important in Denmark into six main categories. They are 1) impact of forests on climate, 2) protection of water supply, 3) protection against erosion, 4) pro tection against pollution, 5) forest recreation, and 6) the positive and negative external effects of forestry practices (Helles 1983 a). The contents of the present multiple-use forestry definition started to take shape in 1987, when the Danish Forest Service merged with the Agency for Protection of Nature, Monuments and Sites to form the National Forest and Nature Agency. The new organization published a report dealing with the re lationship between forestry and recreation. The report defines multiple use as the conscious and deliberate use of every area of the forest in order to produce at the same time several goods and services, the values of which are not nec essarily measured economically (Koch & Canger 1987). The same definition is repeated in a seminar report which was published by the National Forestry and Nature Agency to create debate on conservation of plants and animals in modern forestry. In their article, Billeschou and Koch, both employed by the National Forestry and Nature Agency at that time, elab orate the concept further. According to their interpretation "multiple-use for est management implies, from an idealistic viewpoint, that the decision-maker at each decision - for each piece of forest land - takes into account all the present and future goods and services which forest lands could provide, aim ing at the optimal combination - the optimal compromise" (Billeschou & Koch 1989). The present Danish Forest Act was passed in 1989. Compared to the pre vious laws, it puts more emphasis on non-market forest values. One of the four main purposes of the Act is to strengthen advisory and information activities concerning "good and multiple-use forest management" which is defined in the following way: "In good and multiple-use forest management it shall be endeavored to manage forests in order to increase and improve wood produc tion and to protect landscape amenity, nature conservation, cultural heritage and environmental protection interests, as well as recreational activity inter ests" (Act of Forests... 1989). In September 1991, the periodical Skoven published a special issue on multiple use. The publication was produced in joint cooperation by the Nation al Forest and Nature Agency, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Danish Forestry Society, the Federation of Danish Forest Owners' Associations and the Danish Land Development Service (Hedeselskabet). The handbook repeats the defi nition introduced in 1987 (Koch & Canger 1987). In addition, the writers, Koch and Kristiansen, state that more important than the law text is how for- 48 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries esters respond to the demands concerning multiple use which society imposes on forestry through parliament (Koch & Kristiansen 1991). Koch and Kristiansen (1991) divide forest functions in the following way. Forests produce wood and wood products, Christmas trees and decorative greenery. They serve as recreation sites, for example, for hiking, hunting and orienteering. They contain considerable landscape aesthetic, natural history and cultural history values. They stabilize climate, regulate water, bind soil and sand, and reduce soil-, water-, air- and noise pollution. Furthermore, peo ple can be employed in forestry. Multiple-use principles in Danish forestry have recently been adapted and supported by various policy statements of the government. The forest policy of 1987 states that forest production should be diversified and should not in clude only wood products but also a wide range of nature, environment and lei sure products. It also stresses that diversified production of forests should be actively promoted. According to the 1988 action plan for environment and de velopment of the government, multiple-use forestry should be practised so that the integration of timber production and different environmental measures is strengthened. The integration should be supported by education of forest owners. The plan also emphasizes the need for economic incentives and the strengthening of research and extension (Billeschou & Koch 1989). In the beginning of the 19905, the concept was geared towards a more so cially oriented approach. In the article "Multiple use for social values", Koch and Kennedy define social values as "those goods, services, or ideals that large groups of people will make sacrifices to achieve (e.g. recreation, wildlife, wood products, scenery, etc.)". Consequently, they propose a new definition for forestry as "the management of forest resources to provide a satisfactory amount and mix of multiple-use social values for living clients in the same time protecting forest values and use options for future generations" (Koch & Kennedy 1991). Recently, the concept has been incorporated in the sustainable forestry discussion (e.g. Koch 1992, Strategy for sustainable... 1994). Multiple-use rhetoric has also raised anger in Denmark. Madsen warns in his spicy article from 1991 about the dangers connected to the application of the concept. He maintains that in the long ran private forest management and market forces are able to produce a balanced mixture of multiple forest bene fits in society. Multiple-use ideology instead is paving the way for a bureau cratic system where private forest owners lose their freedom and the official sector regulates land use through restrictions and sanctions (Madsen 1991). This danger has also been admitted by other foresters and studies have been started to create methods to integrate private forest owners' and other interest groups' interests in a harmonius way in areas consisting of or including private properties (e.g. Clausen 1991, Kristiansen 1991) (Figure 3.2). 49 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Figure 3.2 k map describing the ownership structure of the case study area (2,000 ha, 140 owners) of the project "Flersidig udnyttelse af Hammer Bakker" (Clausen 1991). Finland The concept of multiple-use forestry came to Finland from the USA. The first one to discuss the concept and its US interpretation in Finland was pro fessor of forest economics Eino Saari in a forestry periodical "Metsätaloudel linen aikakauslehti" in 1962 (Saastamoinen 1988). He compares the contents of multiple use in the two countries. He considers the most important forest products in Finland, in addition to timber, to be water, outdoor recreation and wildlife (Saari 1962). In the 1960 s and 19705, professor of forest biology Peitsa Mikola contin ued the discussion. He regarded timber production and outdoor recreation as the most important forest uses in Finland. He elaborated multiple-use princi ples for forestry planning, for example, concerning land-use classification and silvicultural criteria for improving the amenity of forest. Mikola also empha sized the societal and normative content of the concept. He introduced to Fin land the idea of integrating forest uses in order to serve all people the best possible way and the idea presented in the Seattle Congress that multiple use requires conscious and coordinated management of the various renewable re sources (McArdle 1962, Mikola 1969). The contents of the concept were disputed in forestry periodicals. On some occasions, multiple use and timber production were considered to exclude 50 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries each other. Professors Saari and Mikola often corrected the presented miscon ceptions. However, neither could they agree on a definition. Saari considered Mikola's interpretations to be idealistic. He claimed that the ideas presented by Mikola, such as the best possible serving of all people, the largest possible benefit and the coordination of uses so that the combination is the best possi ble, were unrealistic and utopian. Saari argued that such statements can de scribe the goals of multiple use but they can not be included in a definition of the concept (Saari 1970). Since then, Finnish forest literature has contained both neutral and norma tive definitions of multiple use. In the 19705, technical and value-free defini tions were common. In the 1980 s, definitions presenting societal goals became clearly more frequent. In 1976, Jaatinen and Saastamoinen (1976) state that the concept includes the principle of producing many products and services instead of one. They di vide forest uses into the following subgroups: 1) timber production, 2) game management and hunting, 3) picking of berries, mushrooms and other minor products, 4) reindeer husbandry and grazing, 5) recreation, 6) landscape aes thetics and management, 7) nature conservation, 8) environmental impacts (i.e. protective functions of forests), and 9) utilization of peat and gravel. Saastamoinen uses the above division in his handbook of multiple-use for estry, which has been widely used as a textbook in vocational training in for estry schools. He also presents the definition used by the National Board of Forestry which divides the forest products into two main groups. According to this, multiple-use forestry means the use of the material and non-material for est products for more than one purpose simultaneously (Saastamoinen 1980). In 1984, Seppo Kellomäki (1984 a) elaborates further Jaatinen's and Saas tamoinen's definition. He ranks the production potentials of forests according to their importance from the point of view of the needs of people: 1) material goods provided by forests (e.g. wood, game, reindeer, lichen, berries, mush rooms), 2) the indirect impacts of forests (e.g. protective functions of forests on air, soil and water), 3) recreation, 4) educational and scientific services of forests, 5) landscape and cultural functions of forests, and 6) nature conserva tion because of intrinsic value. He states that the ranking of the uses according to hierarchical needs helps one to understand the dependence of people on the ecological system (Figure 3.3). The same year, Kellomäki presents a clearly socially oriented definition of the concept in his handbook on environmental management of forestry (1984 b), which is based on his lectures held in the forestry faculty of the Uni versity of Joensuu. According to him, multiple-use forestry means the con scious use of forests so that the objectives and means are well known and the practices are based on the sustained production capacity of the ecosystem. Multiple use refers to such utilization and management of forest resources which, taking into account the ecological and economic limitations, aims "ho listically, impartially and consciously" to satisfy the changing needs of society. 51 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Figure 3.3 Potential production of a forest ecosystem in different stages of succession (Kel lomäki 1984a). The multiple-use forestry working group of the Forest 2000 Programme, which is a long-term plan for developing forestry and forest industry in Fin land, presents the same type of ideas as Kellomäki. According to it, "multiple use forestry means the planned utilization of forest resources in such a way that the various needs of people are satisfied sustainably and that the total of material and non-material benefits provided by the forests for society is as large as possible". The working group arranges the benefits provided by for ests to society and individuals in four categories: material benefits, protective functions, recreation and other benefits (e.g. forest as landscape elements, as nature conservation areas and as a study and educational object). The group also mentions that reindeer husbandry and tourism are livelihoods which uti lize forests (Metsien moninaiskäytön... 1985). Environmental policy action plans contain objectives related to the above presented definitions of multiple use. The Finnish Commission of the Environ ment and Development proposes, among other things, that forestry should aim in the long term to direct development towards natural silviculture and regen eration, towards rehabilitating forests as healthy ecosystems including all the indigenous species and also towards the re-establishment of the cultural, edu cational and social uses of forests (Ympäristön... 1989). The report "Sustainable Development and Finland" prepared by the Coun cil of State for Parliament emphasizes the social and recreational functions of 52 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries forests. Furthermore, the report states, that when planning the utilization of forests, attention should also be paid to non-timber production (Kestävä keh itys... 1990). Recently, the multiple-use concept has been frequently included in new environmental and silvicultural studies and guidelines. Attempts to define it have become rare. Instead, it is problematized through practical contexts and accompanied by new viewpoints like biodiversity, sustainability and social values (e.g. Metsätalouden ympäristöopas 1993, Kellomäki 1994). Iceland The objectives for planting forests in Iceland, in order of priority, are soil pro tection, recreation and wood production (Loftsson 1993). The concept of multiple use does not occur in the English language papers dealing with Ice landic forestry. This may be due to the relative simplicity of forestry problems on the island. However, the functions of forests have been specified in ways which are comparable to the multiple-use thinking in the other Nordic coun tries. Blöndal et ai. (1986) divide the most important protective functions of for ests in Iceland into four subgroups: 1) erosion control, 2) water management, 3) climate regulation (shelterbelts) and 4) nature conservation. In another con text, the Icelandic forests have been grouped in four main categories: 1) pro tection forests for soil stabilization and land reclamation, 2) production forests for timber, firewood and Christmas trees, 3) recreation forests for short term visits close to urban areas and for longer visits for camping, and 4) shelterbelts and woodland for crop cultivation, domestic animals, farmsteads and urban ar eas (Blöndal 1993). At the moment Iceland is almost treeless but afforestation is being carried out in many parts of the country (Figure 3.4). Blöndal (1993) writes about the future: "Intangible benefits worth mentioning are new landscapes, diversified environments, vegetation (including herbs, mosses, lichens, and fungi), and especially the new bird- and wildlife that accompany forests. The pride of liv ing in a forested country which was previously barren and the opportunity to spend more leisure time outdoors when an amenity forest is nearby are impor tant intangible benefits of afforestation". Norway After the Seattle Congress, the English language concept was used in Norway without translation. Borset (1970) writes in an article "If we want to partici pate in the multiple-use dance, we have to listen to the people" (Skal vi vaere med i "multiple-use" -dansen, mä vi lytte til folket). Frederiksen (1970) refers with the "multiple-use -oppgaver" to nature conservation and outdoor recreation in forests. The Norwegian translation of the concept, "flerbruk", 53 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Figure 3.4 Areas potential for wood production in Iceland (Blöndal et al. 1986). was registered for the first time by the Norwegian Lexicographic Institute in 1973 when the newspaper Dagbladet (12.5.) wrote about the multiple-use plan for Oslomarka, the forest north of Oslo (Fernand 1989). In 1986, the journal Norsk Skogbruk published a special issue on multiple use. The Ministry of Agriculture and the Norwegian Forestry Society support ed the publication. In the introduction of the issue, it is said that the booklet can be regarded as an expression of the intentions of the Ministry of Agricul ture and Parliament as regards the practical recommendations concerning rec reation, nature conservation and fauna management in forestry. When defining the concept, the editors refer to the Forestry Act, which was revised in 1976 to include the following sentences: "The objective of this act is to encourage for est production, afforestation and forest protection. The aim will be that forest ry through rational management can give a satisfactory result for the people connected to the forest enterprise and secure an effective and regular supply of raw material for the industry. Further, there should be emphasized the impor tance of the forest as a source for recreation for the population, as an important part of the landscape, as environment for plants and animals, and as areas for hunting and fishing" (Flersidig skogbruk... 1986, Haveraaen 1991). In 1987, the Ministry of Agriculture set up a working group to clarify the relationship of forestry to natural environment and recreation and to promote new measures to carry out the objectives presented in the Forestry Act. The working group states that multiple-use forestry is achieved by adjusting for- 54 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries estry practices so that the objectives mentioned in the Act are reached (Flersi dig skogbruk... 1989). The working group makes a clear distinction between multiple use and na ture protection, because they have different objectives. Nature protection aims at preserving natural conditions of special and rare sites through establishing national parks, nature reserves, natural heritage sites and landscape-protection areas. Multiple-use forestry means that attention is paid to natural environ ment and recreation when practising economically oriented forestry. In other words, protection has more ambitious objectives regarding the preservation of nature than forestry, which aims at ensuring the long-term utilization possibil ities of forest resources (Flersidig skogbruk... 1989). The Norwegian Forest Research Institute has published its own definition. According to it, multiple-use forestry means the diversified use of forest re sources, originating both from the various interests of society and from the economic objectives connected to forests. Important interests of society are: hunting, fishing, outdoor recreation, nature experiences, employment, eco nomic profit and the protection of species, biotops, landscape and drinking wa ter. Important economic objectives of forest utilization are: production of timber, Christmas trees, decorative greenery, game, fish, forage for wild and domesticated animals and investment in income generating activities such as tourism and outdoor recreation (Petersen 1989). Researcher Knut Solbraa from the Norwegian Forest Research Institute emphasizes the social and political aspects of multiple-use forestry. He also brings forest managers and their responsibility into the definition. According to him, the aim of multiple-use forestry is to solve or reduce conflicts between different users and to result in maximum public utility of forests. Differing opinions about the importance of each group's needs, and thereby the content and extent of multiple use, are likely to show up. Consequently, managers who are evaluating the needs of two or more groups of forest users or inhabitants and who pay attention to these needs are practising multiple use. Furthermore, the framework set by laws, rules, and state investment contributions, as well as the influence exercised by state and private service organizations and vol untary organizations, considerably influence the choice of alternatives (Sol braa 1989). Solbraa divides the multiple-use approach into four main subfields ac cording to whom or to what attention is paid: 1) attention to species, biodiver sity, biotopes, vegetation societies, research and education, 2) attention to climate, water regulation/quality, air cleaning, aesthetic effects, other environ mental effects and cultural heritage, 3) attention to recreation (other than in points 1 and 2, and 4) attention to employment, settlements, private and public economic relations and raw material supply. Solbraa's opinion concerning the relationship between forestry and nature protection is that when protection serves other purposes, for example tourism, it can be regarded as part of mul tiple use, otherwise not (Solbraa 1989). 55 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Hans Fredrik Hoen criticizes the Forestry Act of 1976, because it creates many questions for practical forestry and leaves them unanswered (Hoen 1991 b). He defines multiple use the following way: multiple-use forestry practice, i.e. harvesting and investments, is formed on the basis of a deliberate choice from a set of possible handling alternatives. In other words, the chosen treatment defines whether the activity is multiple use or not (Hoen 1991 a). He emphasizes that the choice between different alternatives is always value de pendent. According to him, the overall objective of multiple use is to contrib ute to the maximization of the welfare of society (Hoen 1991 b). Hoen divides the forest products into goods and services. He gives some examples (1991 a): wood and other flora, fauna, genetic material, pasture, ber ries, mushrooms, moss, hunting, drinking water, climate regulation, absorp tion of pollution from air and water, C0 2 -assimilation, landscape aesthetics and recreation. These goods and services can be produced in various combi nations. In 1991, there was lively debate in the periodical "Norsk Skogbruk" con cerning the significance of the concept. Knut Solbraa states (1991 b) that the concept should be abandoned, because when forestry is practised in accord ance with the Forestry Act, forestry can be said to cover the whole field of mul tiple use. Petter Nielsen (1991) regards Solbraa's ideas as too simplistic. The objectives of the Act are on too general a level to ensure that multiple use is practised. He argues that the concept is needed to defend the non-timber pro duction interests. In his response, Solbraa (1991 a) claims that forestry is al ready on its way to being multifunctional. That is why multiple use is only a "smor-pa-flesk" (butter-on-fat) -concept, which can soon be forgotten. Liv Solland (1991) agrees with Nilsen that the concept is useful but criticizes the quality of the popularization of research results. According to her, the main problems can be found in the inadequacy of the dissemination of existing knowledge of multiple-use forestry. Jann Fernand is elaborating a new definition for the concept on the basis of the old German doctrine of functions. According to him, multiple use in cludes and covers four main functions of forests: utility, protection, perception and human self-realization. Multiple use is thus given a prime position in re lation to forestry and nature protection (Fernand 1989, 1992). Fernand is not the first one to develop function thinking in Norway. For example, Sigmund Huse wrote about the various functions of forests and their interrelationships in 1973 (Figure 3.5). Fernand also participates in the debate on the significance of the concept. He criticizes Knut Solbraa's willingness to omit the concept, because he re gards it as a valuable means for widening the forestry discussion in Norway by giving space to the arguments promoting various, often conflicting, forest us es. He would like the next phase in the debate to be a discussion of the position of the concept in a wider societal context and the objectives of the use of the concept (Fernand 1991). 56 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 3.5 Forest functions and their interrelationships (Huse 1973). Since the heated debate, multiple-use has become a common term in Nor way. Outside scientific circles, it is used in a simple and straightforward man ner. A brochure published by the Ministry of Agriculture puts it in the following way: "Forestry aims to combine economic, ecological and outdoor life considerations. The management of the forests is based on this multiple use concept" (Agriculture in Norway 1993). Sweden The first person to mention multiple use frequently in Sweden was Erik Höjer, former chief of the Swedish Forest Service. He started to use the con cept in his presentations after returning from the 1960 World Forestry Con gress (Heden 1984, Hultman 1984). In the 19705, multiple-use forestry was mentioned occassionally by for esters. According to Hultman (1984), timber production was clearly consid ered to be the main purpose of forestry and it was claimed that there are no conflicts between wood production and other forest uses. It was argued that 57 History, evolution and significance ot the multiple-use concept multiple use is already practised in Sweden, because there exists an extensive network of laws, "which take care of all important conflicts that could possibly arise between the use of forests for wood production and other purposes" (Hultman 1984). However, at the same time there was lively debate concerning forestry ac tivities in Sweden. In 1978, The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences decided to make a study of the scientific basis of forestry practices together with forestry organizations and other related interest groups. The aim of the study was to improve the preconditions of making land-use decisions con cerning timber production, nature conservation and recreation. The multiple use concept is not mentioned in the book but its outline is based on the idea that forest is a producer of many material and non-material benefits and val ues. The book classifies the functions of forests into eight categories: 1) exist ence value, 2) ecological stabilization, 3) timber production, 4) forage production, 5) source of knowledge, 6) culture, 7) environment for recreation and (8) potential for the future (Andersson & Hultman 1980). In 1979, Birger Andersson wrote an article about the debate dealing with forest utilization in Sweden. He states that there are no self-evident goals for utilizing forest resources. According to him, forests can be used to produce both wood and aesthetic experiences. They can serve as an environment for many activities which are important to people's feeling of security and self confidence. Forest organisms also have an intrinsic value. Because of the many goods and services produced by forests, various kinds of demands and combinations of demands are possible. The choosing of utilization alternatives is value dependent and often leads to conflicts. Power relationships are central factors in the analysis of interest conflicts. Finally, Andersson suggests that the most essential issues in the whole debate may be the questions dealing with cultural identity and ethics (Andersson 1979). In 1991, Mattsson and Li wrote an article about the multiple benefits of forests (skogens mängnytta). They state that forests produce, in addition to timber, an environment for animals and plants, recreation, hunting and picking of berries and mushrooms. The various interests concerning forest utilization create different kinds of demands on the age structure, tree species combina tion and other forest qualities. The writers emphasize that when defining the combination of benefits that will be produced or when prioritizing different in terests one should attempt to use forest resources so that the total benefit for society is as large as possible. When doing this, it is of fundamental impor tance to take into account the external impacts which follow the production of certain benefits, affecting negatively or positively the production of other ben efits. Finally, a definition of the ideal utilization of forested areas requires an analysis of the means and regulations which enable a balancing of different al ternatives and interests so that good results are reached in practice, out in the forests. Such means and regulations include, for example, legislation, subsi dies and provision of information (Mattsson & Li 1991). 58 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries In 1991, acting professor of silviculture Jan Falck refers with multiple use to walking, jogging, picking berries and mushrooms, camping and hunting. These activities are common because all forest land is open to public use on the basis of the Right of Public Access. Multiple use is thus practised in Swe den although the main use is commercial wood production. According to Fal ck, the Swedish forestry policy is changing from strict governmental control, which aims at the highest possible production of timber, to a more flexible at titude to the use of forest land. Environmental aspects and recreation are com ing into focus. This creates new requirements for foresters. A major problem for practical forestry is the lack of knowledge and experience of alternative sil vicultural systems. New silvicultural methods are needed first of all in forests with special uses. Those areas can be classified the following way: 1) forests close to cities and villages, 2) forests of high altitudes in the mountains, 3) for ests on islands, by lakes and in sea archipelagoes, 4) forests close to nature re serves, 5) forests on water catchments, 6) forests, fauna and flora dependent on a particular density or species composition, 7) grazing areas for reindeer, and 8) small forest estates (Falck 1992). In an outline of the extension of the national account of income from forest resources in Sweden, Lars Hultkrantz divides the yields of forests into the fol lowing eleven categories: 1) timber, 2) berries, 3) mushrooms, 4) meat, 5) rec reation, 6) biodiversity, 7) effects on hydrological flows, 8) fixing of carbon 9) buffering of acid rain 10) nitrogen leaking and 11) reindeer forage. He also defines the respective stocks and maintenance activities (Table 3.1). The rea sons for revising the accounting of forest products are related to the inadequa cy of national income as a measure of welfare and to the need of taking into account environmental degradation when pursuing sustainability of income (Hultkrantz 1992). A typical feature in the Swedish discussion is that the concept "multiple use" has been used very seldom. Still, there has been lively debate about the problems and principles of forestry and many remarkable books which pro mote multiple-use forestry have been published. They include the publica tions "Handbook of ideas for a private forest owner" (Idekatalog... 1988), "Richer forest: knowledge of nature management and ecology of the 19905" (Rikare skog... 1990), and "Management of cultural heritage in forests" (Kul turmiljövärd... 1992). In 1990, the Department of Agriculture set up a committee to revise Swedish forest policy and legislation. Its report contains a definition of multi ple use (mängbruk). According to it, multiple-use forestry includes all the functions of forests which provide renewable raw material, habitat for plants and animals, environment for recreation, cultural and aesthetic values, pasture for reindeer husbandry and also such products as berries, mushrooms and game animals. Attention should be paid to all these components on all forested lands. The balance between the different functions is dependent on the natural conditions and the needs of the population and industries. The report empha- 59 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Table 3.1 Natural stocks of forest resources, the benefits and disutilities that they yield and the associated maintenance activities (Hultkrantz 1992). sizes that all utilization should be multiple-use oriented ("Nyttjandet skall präglas av mängbruk") (Skogspolitiken inför... 1992). The Swedish parliament approved the new forest policy in May 1993. In a brochure describing the main principles of the new strategy, the National Board of Forestry declares: "The forests shall be managed so, that the needs for both high timber production and other functions of the forests are satisfied, in principle, in every hectare of forest land. This is a multiple use approach to forest management" (Sweden's new... 1994). 3.4 Sustainable multiple-use forestry The multiple-use definitions presented by Nordic researchers have empha sized different combinations of forest benefits. A general trend has been a move away from the listing of products and functions to defining problems and setting goals. However, the lists of components have also changed. Old functions such as the production of forage for domestic animals have been left out and new ones such as carbon sequestration and preservation of bio logical diversity have become more frequently mentioned. Moreover, the Yield Maintenance Stock Timber Silviculture Forest inventory Harvest of berries Berry-yielding herbs Mushroom Mycelium Meat (bag) Game protection Game populations Recreation Various activities Various features Biodiversity Fauna and flora Conditions for the survival protection of species Effects on hydrological flows Measures that affect runoff Forest inventory, bare lands, ditches, etc. Fixing of carbon Silviculture and hoarding (non-harvesting) Carbon pools Buffering of acid rain, tree nutrition Liming, fertilization Content of exchangeable base cations in soil and vegetation Nitrogen leaking Construction of nitrogen sinks Nitrogen-fixing capacity Reindeer forage Lichen stocks 60 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries interrelationships between uses and functions are increasingly dealt with. The need to cope with conflicting interests has often been mentioned recently in the multiple-use context. Conflict situations have arisen, for example, when the Sami people herd their reindeer on state forest land affected by logging operations, when the aims of private forest owners go against the desires of recreationists, and when local and national needs do not meet. Today, the ideas of multiple use are merging with the new concept of sus tainable forestry. The following widely quoted definitions of sustainable for estry are clearly normative in their contents and also because they are presented in international agreements. According to the Forestry Principles approved in the UNCED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) Conference in 1992, "Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual human needs of present and future generations. These needs are for forest products and services, such as wood and wood products, water, food, fodder, medicine, fuel, shelter, employment, recreation, habitats for wildlife, landscape diversity, carbon sinks and reservoirs, and for other forest products" (Non-legally binding... 1992). The General Guidelines for the Sustainable Management of Forests in Europe which were agreed upon in the Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe in 1993 states: "sustainable management means the stewardship and use of forests and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfil, now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national, and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems" (Ministerial conference... 1993). The abovementioned agreements give a new and demanding context to the experience obtained in multiple-use forestry. An essential component in the follow-up to these agreements is the defining of criteria and indicators for sus tainable forestry. The creation of a comprehensive system of indicators reflect ing the level of sustainability in forestry requires widening of the information basis and improvements in the statistical and other documentation concerning forest resources and their utilization. The research carried out within the scope of multiple use, for example, on the production and valuation of non-wood forest products and benefits provides valuable information for the elaboration of the criteria and indicators (see e.g. Hytönen 1992). The real value of multiple-use rhetoric and theory will ultimately be tested in forests and by people using and enjoying them. Many examples of well functioning multiple use can be found in the Nordic countries, but there are still a lot of problems to be solved. Ecologically, economically and socially sustainable multiple-use forestry requires adjustments in assessments of forest resources and their societal connections, in the choice of silvicultural methods, and in the structure of decision making. The fair and equitable satisfaction of forest-related needs of the various organized and unorganized groups of peo- 61 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept pie is one of the biggest challenges emphasized in recent sustainability defini tions and international agreements. Furthermore, planning and realization of forest policy measures according to the ideals of multiple use and sustainabil ity require new types of systematic and integrating methods of analyzing the interdependencies between the various uses and functions of forests. 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Om teorien bag flersidig produktion i skovbruget. (Fhe theory behind multiple production in forestry.) Dansk Skovforenings Fidsskrift 62(3): 179-198. (In Danish.) Helles, F. 1978. On the theory of external effects: as applied to forestry. Royal Veter inary and Agricultural University, Reports from Department of Forestry 6. 12 pp. Helles, F. 1 983 a. Flersidig brug af skovene. (Multiple-use forestry.) Den Kgl. Veter inasr- og Landbohojskole, Skovbrugsinstituttet, Arbejdsnotat 16. 47 pp. (In Danish.) Helles, F. 1983 b. Flersidig udnyttelse af skovene. (Multiple utilization of forests.) Skoven 12: 350-353. (In Danish.) Hoen, H.F. 1991 a. Planlegging for flersidig skogbruk: om bruk av kvantitative mod eller. (Multiple-use forestry planning: the use of quantitative models.) Land bruksokonomisk Forum 4: 59-76. (In Norwegian.) Hoen, H.F. 1991 b. Hvordan drive (flersidig) skogbruk? (How to manage (multiple use) forestry?) Norsk Skogbruk 7-8: 26-27. (In Norwegian.) Hultkrantz, L. 1991. National account of timber and forest environmental resources in Sweden. Environmental and resource economics 2: 283-305. 63 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Hultman, S.-G. 1984. Multiple-use forestry in Sweden: undefined and non-existent? In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. 1984. Mul tiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120: 27-32. Huse, S. 1973. Flerbruksbegrepet og skogens funksjoner. (Multiple-use concept and the functions of forests.) Norsk Skogbruk 22: 395-397. (In Norwegian.) Hytönen, M. 1992. Metsien monikäytön tutkimus Suomessa 1970-1990: tiivistelmä bibliografia. (Multiple-use forestry research in Finland 1970-1990: an anno tated bibliography). Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 430. 395 pp. (Partly in English.) Idekatalog för skogsbrukare. (Handbook of ideas for forest managers.) 1988. LTs for lag, Stockholm. 180 pp. (In Swedish.) Jaatinen, E. & Saastamoinen, O. 1976. Metsien moninaiskäyttötutkimuksen perus ongelmat. Summary: Multiple use of forests: basic research tasks. Silva Fen nica 10(2): 141-147. Jespersen, C. 1991. Hvordan kommer vi videre. (How can we go further.) Ugeskrift for Jordbrug 51/52: 827-829. (In Danish.) Kellomäki, S. 1984 a. Metsien sivutuotteet. Summary: By-products of the forests. Silva Fennica 18(4): 382-387. Kellomäki, S. 1984 b. Metsätaloudellinen ympäristönhoito. (Environmental manage ment in forestry.) Silva Carelica 1. 200 pp. (In Finnish.) Kellomäki, S. 1994. Metsätalous. (Forestry.) In: Kurki-Suonio, I. & Heikkilä, M. (eds.). Kestävän kehityksen edellytykset Suomessa. (The prerequisites for sustainable development in Finland.) Tammi, Helsinki, p. (ln Finn ish.) Kestävä kehitys ja Suomi. (Sustainable development and Finland.) 1990. Valtion pai natuskeskus, Helsinki. 97 p. (In Finnish.) Koch, N.E. 1990. Flersidigt skovbruk i gär, i dag og i morgen. (Multiple-use forestry yesterday, today and tomorrow.) In: Landet og loven. Miljoministeriet/Skov og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. p. 109-113. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. 1992. Integrated multiple-use forest planning and management. In: Pro ceedings from lUFRO international conference "Integrated sustainable multi ple-use forest management under the market system", September 6-12, 1992, Pushkino, Moscow Region, Russia, p. 305-314. Koch, N.E. & Canger, S. 1987. Skovopbygning til glasde for friluftslivet. (Forestry for joyful outdoor recreation.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 239 pp. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. & Kennedy, J.J. 1991. Multiple-use forestry for social values. Ambio 20(7): 330-333. Koch, N.E. & Kristiansen, L. 1991. Flersidigt skovbrug: et idekatalog. (Multiple-use forestry: a handbook of ideas.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, 1 lorsholm. 39 pp. (In Danish.) Kristiansen, L. 1991. Case: Hov Skov. Ugeskrift for Jordbrug 51/52: 832-833. (In Danish.) Kulturmiljövärd i skogen. (Management of cultural heritage in forests.) 1992. Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 259 pp. (In Swedish.) 64 Multiple-use forestry In the Nordic countries Leary, R.A. 1985. Interaction theory in forest ecology and management. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr. W. Junk Publishers, Dordrecht. 219 pp. Li, C.-Z., Mattsson, L. & Söderberg, U. 1990. Forests for timber production and environmental services: a conceptual economic analysis. S veri ges lantbruksu niversitet, Institutionen för skogsekonomi, Arbetsrapport 128. 36 pp. Lindqvist, O. 1979. Pelastaako luonnon moninaiskäyttö luonnon? Summary: Will the multiple use of nature save nature? Silva Fennica 13(2): 132-135. Loftsson, J. 1993. Forest development in Iceland. In: Alden, J., Mastrantonio, J.L. & Odum, S. (eds.). Forest development in cold climates. Plenum Press, New York. p. 453-461. McArdle, R.E. 1953. Multiple use: multiple benefits. Journal of Forestry 51(5): 323 325. McArdle, R.E. 1962. The concept of multiple use of forest and associated lands: its values and limitations. In: Proceedings of the Fifth World Forestry Congress "Multiple Use of Forest Lands", August 29-September 10, 1960. Vol. I. p. 143-145. Madsen, E.M. 1991. Et moderne misfoster. (A modern mongrel.) Ugeskrift for Jord brug 51/52: 836-837. (In Danish.) Mattsson, L. & Li, C.-Z. 1991. Hur bör skogen användas? Ett samhällsekonomiskt problem. (How should forests be utilized? A socioeconomic problem.) Skog & Forskning 1: 43-53. (In Swedish.) Metsätalouden ympäristöopas. (Environmental guidelines for forestry.) 1993. Met sähallitus, Vantaa. 112 pp. (In Finnish.) Metsien moninaiskäytön työryhmän raportti. (Report of the multiple-use forestry working group.) 1985. Talousneuvosto, Metsä 2000-ohjelmajaosto, Helsinki. 59 pp. (In Finnish.) Mikola, P. 1969. Monikäyttöinen metsä. (Multiple-use forest.) Metsä ja puu (7-8): 4-6. Ministerial conference on the protection of forests in Europe, 16-17 June 1993 in Helsinki: documents. 1993. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Helsinki. 56 pp. Niesslein, E. 1985. Forstpolitik: ein Grundriss sektoraler politik. Pareys Studietexte 47. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg und Berlin. 150 pp. Nilsen, P. 1991. Flersidig skogbruk skogbruk. (Multiple-use forestry forestry.) Norsk Skogbruk 4: 39. (In Norwegian.) Non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests. 1992. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992. 7 pp. Pearson, C.A. 1944. Multiple use in forestry. Journal of Forestry 42(4): 243-249. Petersen, K. 1989. Skoglig flerbruk: en litteraturstudie. (Multiple-use forestry: litera ture survey.) Norsk institutt for skogforskning, As. 80 pp. (In Norwegian.) Rikare skog: 90 -talets kunskaper om naturvärd och ekologi. (Richer forest: knowl edge of nature protection and ecology in the 905.) 1990. Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 133 pp. (In Swedish.) 65 History, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept Saari, E. 1962. Metsän monikäyttö. (Multiple-use forestry.) Metsätaloudellinen aikakauslehti 79(7-8): 255-256. (In Finnish.) Saari, E. 1970. Monikäyttö-sanan merkitys: lisäselvennystä. (The meaning of the multiple-use concept: additional clarification.) Metsänhoitaja 10: 336. (In Finnish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1974. Metsien moninaiskäytön käsite ja perusteet. (Multiple-use forestry concept and principles.) Metsäntutkimuslaitos, Rovaniemen tut kimusaseman tiedonantoja 6: 42-50. (In Finnish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1980. Metsien moninaiskäyttö. (Multiple-use forestry.) Metsäalan perusoppi 8. Otava, Keuruu. 108 pp. (In Finnish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1988. Metsien monikäytön kehitys: arvioita menneestä ja nykyti lasta. (The development of multiple-use forestry: evaluation of the past and present situation.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 288: 145-157. (In Finnish.) Skogspolitiken inför 2000-talet: huvudbetänkande av 1990 ars skogspolitiska köm mitte. (Forest policy for the 21st century: main report of the 1990 forest policy committee.) Jordbruksdepartementet, Statens offentliga utredningar, SOU 1992:76. 343 pp. (In Swedish.) Solbraa, K. 1989. Flersidig skogbruk. Summary: Multiple-use forestry. Norsk insti tutt for skogforskning, rapport 7. 35 pp. Solbraa, K. 1991 a. Skogbruk skal vaere flersidig. (Forestry will be multifunctional.) Norsk Skogbruk 6: 30. (In Norwegian.) Solbraa, K. 1991 b. Vekk med flersidig skogbruk. (Getting rid of multiple-use for estry.) Norsk Skogbruk 2: 25-26. (In Norwegian.) Solland, L. 1991. Flersidig skogbruk er forskjellig fra skogbruk? (Multiple-use for estry is different from forestry?) Norsk Skogbruk 6:31. (In Norwegian.) Strategy for sustainable forest management. 1994. Ministry of the Environment, Copenhagen. 64 pp. Sweden's new forest policy. 1994. The National Board of Forestry, Jönköping. 13 pp. UNCED: YK:n ympäristö- ja kehityskonferenssi, Rio de Janeiro 3.-14.6.1992. (UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro 3.-14.6.1992.) Ympäristöministeriö/Ulkoasiainministeriö, Hel sinki. 239 pp. (In Finnish.) Welp, M. 1993. Metsälait ja metsäpolitiikka Saksassa. (Forest laws and forest policy in Germany.) In: Palo, M. & Flellström, E. (eds.). Metsäpolitiikka valinkau hassa. (Forest policy in a melting pot.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 471:23-73. Wilkinson, C.E. & Anderson, H.M. 1987. Land and resource planning in the National Forest. Island Press, Covelo, California. 396 pp. Ympäristön ja kehityksen Suomen toimikunnan mietintö. Summary: Report of the Finnish Commission on Environment and Development. Ympäristöminis teriö, Komiteamietintö 1989:9. 264 pp. 66 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 67 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication 4 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication Jann Fernand 1 Abstract The multiple-use forestry concept has been interpreted as a new sector within forestry, as a synonym to forestry and as a notion superior to the interests related to forests. Different professional and other interest groups have a ten dency to define the concept to suit their own purposes. There has been debate, for example, on the relationship between nature protection and multiple use. The German theory of forest functions is elaborated further by specifying the social dimension more distinctly. This is done by widening the scope of the recreation function by emphasizing the self-realization aspect of recreation. Also a new function of perception is discussed in addition to the traditional utility and protection functions. Multiple use arises from a communicative process between the interests related to these four functions. Tying multiple use to the concept of communication results in a process of creativity which may lead to better economy, protection and recreation. Keywords: forest functions, concepts, foresters, environmentalists, communi cation, philosophy. ' Agricultural University of Norway P.0.80x 5044, N-1432 As, Norway 68 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 4.1 Introduction Although foresters in Germany were using terms related to multiple use as early as the 19th century ("Waldnebenniitzungen" (Cotta 1860) and "Zweck des Waldes" (Gayer 1882)), the prevailing discussion concerning multiple use in the Nordic countries seems to have originated with "The Multiple Use Sus tained Yield Act", approved in 1960 in USA. This act was presented at the Fifth World Forestry Congress in Seattle the same year. In Denmark and Nor way this has been said to be the starting point of the current debate (Koch & Kristiansen 1991, Samset 1988). The term multiple use was first used in Scandinavia at the end of the 1 960 s and had become well known by the first half of the 19705. This did not mean that the notion multiple use - or its vari ous translations - was unambiguous. On the contrary, many used it to legiti mize their own views or understandings because of its relative blankness in relation to other notions. That this lack of agreement was more than purely semantic became obvious during the power struggle over, for example, budget dispositions. The need for an unambiguous definition became clear in all the Nordic countries, and almost all organizations involved sought to cre ate such a definition. The formulations used were understood to be descrip tive by those who looked at multiple use as an interaction between different goals, in which forestry always had been involved. The normative interpreta tion was imposed by those who saw the possibility of gaining acceptance of their own ideas on what forestry ought to be like. The antagonism which arose, connected to how foresters interpret multiple use, is typical for people with a natural scientific approach to problem solving. When we start with a definition, we can soon move into a natural scientific world of registration and techniques. There is no scientific method for formu lating questions, because there can never be a complete description of the re ality. Our interpretation of the reality will still be our point of departure when we pose questions, but our interpretation has to be developed continuously. Problems connected with formulating questions are therefore not something we as foresters are socialized to be aware of. If we had understood why the new notion was necessary, our entire experience of the reality would have been different. Our framework has been to take reality for granted, in order to get to work. That other questions may be better than our own has not been seen as a problem, as long as our interpretation of reality satisfies a certain defini tion. "When we talk about "multiple-use forestry", it is a common experience that the notion is very well received by all of the interest groups. Maybe this is because the different groups each imagine that "multiple use" signi fies that exactly their interests will be promoted at the cost of other consid erations which must be included within multiple use." (Koch & Kris tiansen 1991, translated by J. Fernand). 69 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication Hall (1963) has given a corresponding analysis of how the multiple-use act was perceived in the USA. Hall concludes that it is impossible to decide whether the concept was supposed to be apprehended as normative or descrip tive. The discussion of what multiple use is - what is the concept of multiple use - has continued in all the Nordic countries and has been revised several times during the years we have had this term in our vocabulary. The longest discussion has been on whether multiple use has to be comprehended as con flict or harmony, optimization or adaptation. Is man or nature the subject/ob ject in our comprehension of multiple use and how is the concept of multiple use related to other areas of nature management? The latter will be the point of departure for this article. 4.2 Seeking a position for the notion multiple use Multiple use as a sector within forestry "A translation of the notion multiple use as "flerbruk" is possibly philologi cally acceptable. However, ...the general considerations we are trying to take into account have a long tradition in Norway and are completely covered by the roomy notion forestry." (Samset 1988, translated by J. Fernand). Samset's statement can be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, multiple use can be a sector of forestry along with other forest activities such as economy, biology and technology (Figure 4.1). As multiple use, according to Samset, al ready has a long tradition in other forest activities, it will be a vacant box or needless sectorization. Notions such as "new forestry", "urban forestry" and "landscape ecology" well satisfy the criteria for such a placement. Multiple use as a synonym for forestry The other interpretation equates the concept of multiple use with the concept of forestry. This was discussed before the 1976 amendments of the Norwe gian Forest Act (Om lov om endringer... 1974/75). It was recently repeated by Figure 4.1 Multiple use as a new sector within forestry, equal to existing and future activities. 70 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries the coordinator of the Norwegian research programme "Forest Ecology and Multilateral Forestry", who equates multilateral forestry and forestry (Solbraa 1991 a, 1991 b). "Multilateral forestry is used today in order to denote the intention to fol low the Forest Act. Even if such a notion is useful during a transition stage, we do have to cross out multilateral as soon as possible." (Solbraa 1991 a, translat ed by J. Fernand). With no distinction between "multiple-use forestry" and "multilateral for estry" (forestry with multiple-use considerations), the passage above is a good example of those that equate forestry and multiple use (Figure 4.2) (Fernand 1991). The models shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 legitimize, but do not stipulate, that multiple use remains a problem to be solved internally among foresters. Multiple use is given the role of adapting forestry to take into consideration other interests. Forest actions are not an isolated act among foresters. Modern forest activ ity can only be legitimized in a wider context, in an interaction with a larger society. Both of the models presented make a continued forest monopoly pos sible when it comes to posing the questions. Foresters can still seek internally among themselves what the reality is like. By this it becomes nearly impossi ble to evaluate the traditions on which forestry is based. In relation to what are we supposed to make evaluations? It is not enough to register outside criticism and act in response to the cri tique. The criticism is most likely a reaction to something that is wrong. Those who criticize forestry probably do not know any more about the hidden values influencing their reactions, than foresters understand how they find them selves in their present tenuous positions. If multiple use is put as a sector under forestry, people in charge of multi ple-use management will hardly be able to question presuppositions in forest ry policy. In a sectorized society, multiple use will need admission to groups with forest interests, including foresters. If multiple use is interpreted as a sec tor under forestry or as a synonym for forestry, the concept of multiple use will not make any contribution to the legitimization needed to be critical of presup positions formed outside the sector of forestry. In order to be part of an inter action, multiple use needs admission to all those interested in forests. Figure 4.2 Multiple use as a synonym for forestry. 71 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication Multiple use as a superior notion In an official report by the Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture, the term mul tiple use is elucidated as follows: "Multiple use of the forest is understood to mean several forms of use of forest resources on the same area or at the same time, as opposed to single use of the same resources. ...The concessions forestry has to make are ba sic presuppositions for the multiple use mentioned, but forestry alone does not direct multiple use. We therefore say that forestry takes multiple use into consideration or is multilateral. ...When forestry is supposed to adapt itself to other interests, it is considered multilateral...." (Flersidig skogbruk 1989, translated by J. Fernand). Multiple use has thus, to official authorities in Norway, become a notion superior to forestry, while forestry is run multilaterally or with multiple-use considerations (Figure 4.3). Accordingly, it is possible to refer to protection with multiple-use considerations or adaptation for recreation with multiple use considerations. Some foresters want to abandon the notions "multilateral forestry" and "forestry with multiple use considerations" (e.g. Solbraa 1991 a, b). These no tions have, however, a major and positive mission. They are discussed in a lively way, and they are connected to a creative process within practical for estry. When a forester needs to point out the importance of new methods, it can be productive to have a notion showing that these methods take into consider ation other forest-related interests. If we see multiple use as a concept superior to forestry, foresters might feel their position and power threatened. Even nature conservationists might feel their power threatened, as multiple use would also be superior to protection. Figure 4.3 Multiple use as a notion superior to our interests in relation to forests. 72 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries One strategy used by conservationists, in order to increase the importance of protection, has been to separate the motives for multiple use and protection (e.g. Hägvar 1989). If, however, we break down multiple use according to mo tives, we very soon end in a situation where multiple use becomes equivalent to production of wood fibre and the concept of multiple use is unable to cover more than forestry. The reason for introducing the new notion then becomes purely strategic, in order to manipulate an opinion. Multiple use as a notion superior to our interests in relation to forests can bring added complexity to decisions concerning foresters' and conservation ists' activity. Their status can be reduced, and external financial aid for their system can be in danger. For individuals, a new career ladder can also be con sidered as threatening to one's own interests. Seeing multiple use in a superior position comes up against high barriers which the actors might not be con scious of. 4.3 Forest functions Among concepts related to multiple use, forest functions play an important part. They are particularly used in Central Europe, but only sporadically in Scandinavia (e.g. Huse 1973, Andersson 1979, Koch 1990). The theory of forest functions was introduced in Germany in the 1930 s (Dieterich 1953), and discussion of this theme has been one of the main pro pellants of the central European approach to multiple-use forestry. A large number of forest functions have been described (e.g. Hasel 1971). Usually, the theory of forest functions is presented with three main functions: utility, pro tection and recreation (Nutz-, Schutz- und Erholungsfunktion). It is, however, desirable to specify the social dimension more distinctly (cf. Reunala 1987). I therefore propose four main functions or function groups: utility, realization, perception and protection. For readers familiar with the use of forest functions, it should be noted that the forest functions can be interpreted independently of a dialectic historical and conflict orientated frame. Utility function The forest is a source of raw materials and income. It represents a reserve of capital which can be realized by property transactions or by harvesting of resources. Forests also provide employment. Traditional production and harvesting of timber are covered by the utility function. The forest will also have a function of utility for those who sell hunt ing or fishing rights, for those who work in the tourist industry or for others with an income connected to forest areas. The forest has a function of utility for those who harvest products for personal use (berries and mushrooms), pro- 73 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication vided that economy, not recreation, is the main motivation. The function of utility also covers nature as a resource for new medicines in the future. Realization function The forest has a function for those who want to spend their leisure time. How we realize our lives is dependent on norms, which differ from culture to cul ture and time to time, but still, human realization can be very conformist (i.e. it has a normative aspect). Sports for exercise and competition, hunting, fish ing and berry picking are well covered by the function of realization, as long as leisure is the main motivation. The word "realization" (or self-realization, which has to take place in the context of normative regulated interaction) has been chosen for several rea sons. It allows the concept to be used in times or places where "leisure time" and "working time" overlap for forest users. Another reason is to make the the ory of forest functions comparable to other sectors of society. For example, cinemas and theaters have a realization function, too. Thus, it is easier to de fine the importance of forest for recreation in a wider context. Most Western societies are today in transition between a situation where realization and utility are woven together and a situation where "objective" work and "normative" self-realization are separated. In such a transitionary stage, it is not surprising that differences arise between the rural and urban population over interpretation of the forests. Perceptive function In contrast to the function of realization this function is oriented not toward the normative, but toward the subjective. This function covers the forest as a symbol for our emotions of height, time, light, spirit and wrath (see Bevan 1938), as an archetype (Reunala 1984), as well as how the forest binds us to history as a process and as a symbol for existing culture. To facilitate a general survey, the function of perception can be divided in two. Firstly, as a medium for communication with what we can call our hidden values, or our intuitions of second order (Rawls 1971). The certainty of the for est's existence and continuity is significant for individual and social self-per ception. Secondly, as experience in a forest stand. Different forms of the forest and its infrastructure give us associations, and thereby words, in our culture and emotional lives. We all bob about in a sea of symbols, whether we are conscious of them or not. The function of perception has to do with how we interpret nature and human activity in relation to nature. Our creativity depends on our ability to sense, reconstruct and question our symbols. To describe our perception of a tree in terms of chemical formulas and cell structure is as genial as explaining a piano concert of Chopin by studying the tracks on a record. 74 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries I have intentionally not drawn aesthetics into this presentation. I find this difficult because most discussions of this concept end in a designation of good and bad. It is possible to give aesthetics a deeper content, but as long as aes thetics - by nature management - is known as pleasure of a different and su perior quality, or that aesthetic experience is distinguished not by pleasure at all, but by a special aesthetic emotion, 1 can not see any reason for using aes thetics as a point of departure for our purpose. This does not indicate that I in tend to forget about aesthetics, rather that I want to treat it more as action, creation and re-creation, and less as an attitude. Protective function There is no way in which we can suppose distinct notions. But even so, through all our descriptions we maintain the existence of a unity, a center ("das Sein" - Heidegger (1967)); as something which makes the reality static and stabilizes our description. In the theory of forest functions, nature plays the role of a center for understanding. The forest becomes a prerequisite for constructive communication about forests. In its most extreme consequence - if we lose the forests - it will soon be absurd referring to forests in communi cative action (Habermas 1989, Fernand 1989). The existence of forests provides the existence of humans and human re lations to forests. The importance of forests follows from our descriptions. Forests have a protective function for species and ecosystems. Forests main tain water quality, prevent soil erosion, protect us from noise, improve air quality and are a filter for pollution. Forests can encourage humans in relating to nature, including relating to each other. The existence of forests insures the development of new ways for humans to relate to forests and to nature. This interpretation of the protective function must however not be con fused with an extensive use of strategic and instrumental actions referring to the functions of utility and realization, used by nature conservationists. The most dominating strategy nowadays is to legitimize protection by combining an interest for objects with an economic rational mentality. This strategy very soon brings nature conservation under the function of utility. A utilitarian strategy of conservation is not necessarily wrong, but it is incomplete, and has to be corrected through an interaction with other forest functions. One of the purposes of the introduction of a function theory is to establish a frame to en courage criticism, not only for foresters, but for everyone in society who is concerned about nature. Negative functions The existence of negative forest functions does not disturb the function the ory. Examples from within the perceptive function group which might be per ceived as negative are that forest darkens the landscape and impedes orienta- 75 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication tion. We shall take a closer look at another example, much discussed in some of the Scandinavian countries. One of the protective functions of forests is the function of conserving forest wildlife, which in certain parts of Scandinavia still includes large predators. If the problem predator/domestic animals is to be removed completely, this will mean extermination of our population of large predators. Such extermination will thereby be nothing but a denial of the validity of a value principle which no science can prove, but to which our actions will still be oriented (Weber 1971). This is, in respect of the creation of new perceptions and social norms, the opposite of what we are trying to establish through the theory of forest functions. To what extent we want to have a predator population is therefore a question of management, which is covered by multiple use. The theory of forest functions can help us here to create better analyses, and to question already established presuppositions. Because of this, I consider the phenomenon of negative functions - to the extent they exist - to strengthen the theory of forest functions. 4.4 An interpretation of the theory of forest functions In describing forest functions, we have started to come to terms with the con cept of multiple use. Multiple use covers the four functions, but also - and this is probably the most important - the relation between the functions. Mul tiple use is more than the sum of four functions, since the functions are also mutually related to each other. This mutual relation is very central in the the ory of forest functions. How we affect one function will always be reflected and have an influence on the other functions. To formulate these connections is not just a good exercise for the brain, but also a good source of enlighten ment concerning multiple use. It becomes easier for each of us to see our position and to orient ourselves in the surrounding world. We have now reached the following pictures of multiple use (Figures 4.4 and 4.5). Looking closely at Figure 4.4, we see that when we refer to one or another of the functions, the forest will still be the subject, while the function becomes the object. The functions as objects always have the same subject, the forest. This has been interpreted by Gliick and Pleschberger (1982) to mean that na ture becomes the subject while humans remain as the objects. If Gliick and Ple schberger's interpretation is right, the theory of forest functions would imply a revolutionary new view of the relation between man and nature. The opposite view was already established in antiquity by the transition to abstract notions (Hegge 1978). The same problem of subject/object arises if we try to under stand the functions in a hierarchical structure, where protection is placed on the top. It has been argued by conservationists that their protective function is so basic that it has to be placed above multiple use in Figure 4.5. In order to attain the equivalent of what those representing protection are looking for, I say that the function of protection is communicative. Protection is a supposi- 76 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 4.4 Forest functions. tion which enables us to communicate intelligibly about forests. Without for ests it makes no sense to talk about forests - and in its most extreme consequence - nobody to talk about them. Without language (the communica tive), nobody is talking. If we again take a look at Figure 4.4, it is possible to see that the theory of forest functions is not as revolutionary as is here suggested. You will see that the forest is the kernel, center or subject. What encloses the kernel is, however, not people, but the interests humans have in their relation to nature. As all the interests or functions are mutually related to each other, no humans will be able to neglect any of the functions. The gravity of human interests in forests will therefore always be within this sphere - in the forest. Whether the forest or the human is the subject is thereby a question which the theory of forest functions does not manage to answer. The relationship between individuality and sociality (for instance language, nature) within nature management is thereby a problem which the theory of forest functions is nowhere near solv- Figure 4.5 Forest functions. 77 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication ing. This does not prohibit the theory of functions from being a good founda tion for further analyses. It is necessary to point out that even if a representative invokes an interest, this interest does not represent human beings, but rather the interest the repre sentative is "paid" to promote. Thus it is possible to see how the development of society toward a sectorized superstructure also has had its influence on na ture management. On the other hand, it can be asserted that those who claim the interests of foresters claim the interests of the landowners, and they are hu mans. But does the forester protect the interests of landowners? According to official policy in Scandinavia today, the landowners are supplied with a vo cabulary which expresses the forest's function of utility. The landowners are supposed to defend and legitimately interpret the forest economically. This is all very well, and many have done a major and important job in informing the landowners on this subject. But how does a landowner legitimize decisions which are correct for him as an individual - but not according to the textbook - when he lacks words and expressions for other interests in his forest? The forest has possibly the strongest function of perception for the landowner, at the same time as his management of the forest is of major importance for his socio-cultural position in the local community. Those who work with multiple use have a responsibility to promote words and argumentation which legiti mize the whole spectrum of interests we have in relation to forests. My theory of forest functions states that the forest has four main functions which are all mutually interrelated. One cannot, according to this theory, claim that one function is more important than another. There is no origin in percep tion, no priority given to vision, and no data of observation. Multiple use is not an account of rationalized movement from percept to concept. It begins and ends in concepts. The theory of forest functions gives us a basis for seeing our selves and our actions in a new perspective. The theory of forest functions is a basis for reaching a deeper acknowledgement of the set of problems we are facing, but does not in itself make our actions legitimate. 4.5 What is multiple use? Multiple use arises from a communicative process between the four functions or our interests in forests. This noticeable feature is valid whether the com munication is between representatives for the different functions or between interests within each of us. Multiple use presupposes a substantial communi cative rationality of value, which concentrates our attention on possibilities, possibilities of finding well-informed solutions to problems and values which arise and evolve in a communicative connection. This "production" of knowledge up through the system will later form the basis for new signals down through the system, signals which indicate where we lack knowledge and which strategy a representative ought to choose without disqualifying 78 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries other representatives or interests. We can here study the relation between the four functions, interests and representatives. We can look at possibilities for coordination of activities which are separate today (for instance, registrations and infrastructure). We can come up with new concepts for education. We can start projects to analyze the individual sectors in fields where the sectors have not been willing or able to look at themselves in a new way. Multiple use can be an umbrella for case studies of the development of new procedures of set tlements. In this way multiple use of forest becomes: philosophy, pedagogics, psychology, sociology, social anthropology and political science, which at the same time demand a basic knowledge of biology and economics (history) of the areas administered, also in order to communicate with those who are responsible for nature management today. This can happen by analyzing and naming the context in which each sector is operating, or by replacing previously established understatements for one sector's activity. Such a change does not presuppose - as many seem to believe - that one sector will become less important. To the contrary, one sector can become increasingly important at the same time as other sectors become im portant. When we tie multiple use to a concept of communication we are get ting into a process of creativity where we are also searching for a better economy, more protection and to do more in favour of recreation. This is in contrast to forestry with multiple-use contradictions, with its instrumental bu reaucratic and strategic character, which creates more at the expense of anoth er (strategic manipulation of a subject) or something else (instrumental manipulation of an object). Interdisciplinary work, so much discussed these days, is not about con fronting already constituted disciplines (none of which, in fact is willing to let itself go). To do something interdisciplinary it is not enough to choose a "sub ject" (a theme) and gather around it two or three sciences. Interdisciplinarity consists of creating a new object that belongs to no one (Barthes 1984). References Andersson, B. 1979. Vad handlar debatten egentligen om? (What is the debate really dealing with?) Sveriges Skogsvärdsförbunds Tidskrift 77(1): 75-82. (In Swedish.) Barthes, R. 1984. Le bruissement de la langue. Le Seuil, Paris, p. 97-103. Bevan, E. 1938. Symbolism and belief. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London. 387 pp. Cotta, H. 1860. Grundriss der Forstwissenschaft. 5. Auflage. Arnoldische Buchand lung, Leipzig. 348 pp. Dieterich, V. 1953. Forstwissenschaftspolitik. Eine Einfuhrung. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg und Berlin. 398 pp. Fernand, J. 1989. Refleksjoner omkring flerbruk og flerbruksbegrepet: fusjon og konfusjon? (Reflections around multiple use and multiple-use concept: fusion 79 Multiple-use forestry - a concept of communication and confusion?) M. Sc. thesis. Norges landbrukshogskole, Institutt for skogskotsel, Äs. 110 pp. (In Norwegian.) Fernand, J. 1991. Flersidig kaos. (Multiple chaos.) Norsk Skogbruk 10: 30-31. (In Norwegian.) Flersidig skogbruk: skogbrukets forhold til naturmiljo og friluftsliv. (Multiple-use forestry: the relationship of forestry with natural environment and outdoor recreation). 1989. Norges offentlige utredninger, NOU 1989:10. 139 pp. (In Norwegian.) Gayer, K. 1882. Der Waldbau. Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin. 592 pp. Gliick, P. & Pleschberger, W. 1982. Das Harmoniedenken in der Forstpolitik. Allge meine Forstzeitschrift 37: 650-655. Habermas, J. 1989. The theory of communicative action: the critique of functionalist reason. Vol. 1-2. Policy Press, Cambridge. Hägvar, S. 1989. Flerbruk kan ikke erstatte vern. (Multiple use can not replace pro tection.) Aktuelt fra Statens fagtjeneste for landbruket 4: 87-96. (In Norwe gian.) Hall, G.R. 1963. The myth and reality of multiple use forestry. Natural Resources Journal 3: 276-290. Hasel, K. 1971. Waldwirtschaft und Urn welt. Eine Einfuhrung in die forstwirtschaft spolitischen Probleme der Industriegesellschaft. Verlag Paul Parey, Hamburg und Berlin. 322 pp. Hegge, H. 1978. Mennesket og naturen. Naturforstäelsen gjennom tidene - med saer lig henblikk pä vär tids miljokrise. (People and nature. Understanding of nature through the ages - with special emphasis on the present environmental crisis.) Universitetsforlaget, Oslo/Bergen/Tromso. 162 pp. (In Norwegian.) Heidegger, M. 1967. Sein und Zeit. Tubingen. Huse, S. 1973. Flerbruksbegrepet og skogens funksjoner. (Multiple-use concept and the functions of forests.) Norsk Skogbruk 22: 395-397. (In Norwegian.) Koch, N.E. 1990. Flersidigt skovbrug i gär, i dag og i morgen. (Multiple-use forestry yesterday, today and tomorrow.) In: Landet og loven. Miljoministeriet/Skov og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. p. 109-113. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. & Kristiansen, L. 1991. Flersidigt skovbrug: et idekatalog. (Multiple-use forestry: a handbook of ideas.) Miljoministeriet/Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 39 pp. (In Danish.) Om lov om endringer i lov av 21. mai 1965 om skogbruk og skogvern. Ot.Prop. Nr. 29 (1974-75). Forvaltningstjenestene, Statens trykningskontor, Oslo. 42 pp. (In Norwegian.) Rawls, J. 1971. A theory of justice. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 607 pp. Reunala, A. 1984. Forest as symbolic environment. Communicationes Instituti Fore stalls Fenniae 120: 81-85. Reunala, A. 1987. Forest benefits in Finland. In: Proceedings of the 18th lUFRO World Congress for Economic Value Analysis of Multiple-use Forestry. Ore gon State University, Corvallis. p. 47-60. Samset, I. 1988. Forti ars samarbeid, tretti ärs naboskap. (Forty years of cooperation, thirty years of neighborhood.) Vi og Vasrket 33(2): 9-17. (In Norwegian.) 80 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Solbraa, K. 1991 a. Vekk med flersidig skogbruk. (Getting rid of multiple-use for estry.) Norsk Skogbruk 2: 25-26. (In Norwegian.) Solbraa, K. 1991 b. Skogbruk skal vasre flersidig (Forestry will have multiple objec tives). Norsk Skogbruk 6: 30. (In Norwegian.) Weber, M. 1971. Makt og byräkrati. (Power and bureaucracy.) Gyldendal Norsk For lag, Oslo. 223 pp. (In Norwegian.) 81 Timber production and the forest industry 5 Timber production and the forest industry Marjatta Hytönen 1 Sigurdur Blöndal 2 Abstract By the end of the 19th century, the forest resources of the Nordic countries were in a degraded state because of overutilization. The structure of forests was also shaped by fires, shifting cultivation and grazing. Silvicultural meth ods evolved fast in the first half of the 20th century and were intensified in the 1960 s and 19705, the main aim being timber production. Today, timber resources are growing faster than they are cut. In the 19905, all the Nordic countries have started to look for new ways to manage forests more in har mony with nature and concern for interests other than timber production is increasing. The wood-processing forest industry is a prominent sector in the national economies of Finland, Norway and Sweden. In Denmark, and to some extent also in Iceland, wood processing is recognized as a significant local livelihood. Wood-based livelihoods will be important sources of income, employment and cultural identity also in the future in the Nordic countries. Keywords: forest resources, timber, silviculture, forest industry, environmen tal awareness, trade, employment. 1 Finnish Forest Research Institute Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170, Helsinki, Finland 2 Kviaklettur, Hallormstadur, 701 Egilsstadir, Iceland 82 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 5.1 Introduction Throughout history, wood has been one of the important natural commodities sought by man, and the Nordic countries have been no exception. Today, the forest and utilization of wood form one of the pillars on which the modern welfare society of at least three of the five Nordic countries relies. However, as the social structure gradually changes from rural to urban, the primary industries decrease in importance. The secondary manufacturing sector and services provide occupations for the majority of people. Consequently, forests are assigned a new role in which timber production plays a lesser part, and the importance of recreation and environmental protection increases. In despite of the changes, the wood-based livelihoods will be important sources of income, employment and cultural identity also in the future in the Nordic countries. Therefore, this chapter concentrates on describing the present trends and future challenges concerning Nordic timber resources and their management and utilization. 5.2 Timber resources Most of the forests of Finland, Norway and Sweden belong to the boreal coniferous zone. The southern parts of these countries and the whole of Den mark belong to the temperate mixed forest zone (Kuusela 1990). The only forest-forming native tree species in Iceland is birch (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). The structure of forests of the Nordic countries was heavily shaped by fire and overexploitation until the beginning of the 20th century. Since then forests have been affected by organized silviculture. Recently, various societal and forest management factors have brought about an expansion of timber resourc es. Denmark Forests cover 11 % (466,000 ha) of the total area of Denmark. About 70 %is arable land. The remaining areas include bogs, heaths, dunes, built-up areas and gardens (Brief glimpses... 1982, The forest resources... 1992). Before man came on the scene, 90 % of Denmark was covered by trees. The majority of the original tree species were broadleaves. People started to utilize the forest around 2500 B.C. By the 18th century, tree resources had been used up and forest land cleared, leaving only 3 % forest coverage. In 1762, a German forester Johan Georg von Langen was invited to organize for est management in Denmark. Since then, Denmark's forests have been man aged systematically and intensive afforestation efforts have been carried out, mainly using exotic conifers (Table 5.1) (Brief glimpses... 1982). 83 Timber production and the forest industry Table 5.1 Tree species distribution in Denmark according to the Nationwide Forest Inventory 1979-82 (The forest resources... 1992). Today, about two thirds of the forest area of Denmark is covered by coni fers. The dominant species is Norway spruce (Picea abies). Sitka spruce (Pi cea sitchensis) has been planted in coastal areas because it tolerates salty air. Since 1864, large areas of heaths have been forested with mountain pine (Pi nus mugo). Other exotic conifers used in afforestation include Douglas fir (.Pseudotsuga menziesii), silver fir (Abies alba), grand fir (Abies grandis), Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and larch (Larix sp.) (Brief glimpses... 1982, The forest resources... 1992, Scandinavia... 1993). Beech (Fagus sylvatica ) and oak (Quercus robur) are the most wide spread broadleaved tree species in Denmark. Other common broadleaved species are ash (Fraxinus excelsior), sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus), alder (. Alnus sp.), elm ( Ulmus sp.), aspen (Populus sp.), birch (Betula sp.) and lime (Tilia sp.). The broadleaved forest area is slowly increasing. The amount of oak has shown the largest increase. It has been used to make forests more re sistant to winds. Elm, white alder, sycamore and common alder are increas ingly planted in shelterbelts to protect the topsoil from drifting in sandy areas. They are replacing white spruce (Picea glauca), which was formerly pre ferred for this purpose (Brief glimpses... 1982, The forest resources... 1992, Scandinavia... 1993). In 1991, the Danish government decided to speed up reforestation of the country. It was decided to double the current forest area over the next 75 to 100 years. To achieve this goal the forest area must be increased by about 5,000 ha per year (Scandinavia... 1993). Plum et ai. (1990) list the following reasons for the decision to increase forest cover: 1) Farming has become less profitable. Because of the surplus production the European Union (EU) has started to regulate farming by quotas. 2) Growing concern about the environment has made it desirable to re-estab lish forests in open areas in order to absorb more carbon dioxide from the air, to prevent the movement of sand and to protect watercourses. 3) The need for increased tourism and for enhancing the amenity values of areas in general. 1,000 ha % Conifers 316 68 Beech 87 19 Oak 33 7 Other broadleaved 30 6 84 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 4) The benefit of planting woodland as a source of wood. Hardwoods are expected to be particularly profitable. From 1976 to 1990, the annual planted acreage amounted to only 300-400 hectares. Several government and EU initiated programs encourage afforesta tion of agricultural land but the support has been insufficient to persuade forest owners to establish the desired amount of new forests (Scandinavia... 1993). To get government grants for reforestation, forest owners have to also agree to maintain the new forest areas in the future. This compulsory condition has cre ated resistance (Grayson 1993). However, Danish forest resources are growing (Table 5.2). Because of the extension of forest area and the uneven distribution of age classes, having a preponderance of young stands, harvesting potential will be doubled in the next thirty years (Strategy for sustainable forest... 1994). On the other hand, government policy will increase the area of forests that are not subject to com mercial management. This policy will have a decreasing effect on the level of removals, especially from broadleaved forest (Outlook for the European... 1994). Table 5.2 Growing stock, net annual increment and removals in exploitable forest in Denmark (figures over bark; the removals in 1990 have been converted to over bark figures by multiply ing by 1.16). Finland About 78 % (26 million ha) of the total area of Finland is forested. Lakes and other waterways cover 10 % (3 million ha). Exploitable forests grow on 57 % of the land area, while 13 % is arable land. One third of Finland is covered by peatlands. Of this, about 50 % (5 million ha) have been drained to increase timber production (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja 1994). The structure of Finnish forests has been affected by fire. It is estimated that, in the 1 8th and 19th centuries, dry forests burned at 50 year intervals and the more moist sites at 120 year intervals, on average. Fires diversified the 1950 1960 1970 1990 Growing stock, 1000 m 3 40 000 44 000 42 000 55 000 Growing stock, m 3/ha 91 118 113 132 Net annual increment, 1000 m 3 2 500 2 530 2 300 3 200 Total removals, 1000 m 3 2 180 1 970 2 470 2 100 Net annual increment, m3/ha 5.7 6.8 6.2 7.7 Removals m3/ha 5.0 5.3 6.6 5.0 Sources: years 1950, 1960, 1970 (European timber trends... (Outlook for the European... 1994). 1986), year 1990 85 Timber production and the forest industry landscape; old forests were able to develop in areas which the fire could not reach, but it also prevented natural succession and the formation of old forests in more accessible areas (Metsätalous ja ympäristö 1994). Starting from the 16th century, the forest structure was also shaped by shifting cultivation, forest grazing and tar burning. Shifting cultivation in creased the amount of broadleaved trees in the landscape. Forest pasture cre ated open forest areas with retarded growth of trees. Tar burning consumed large amounts of pine and thus contributed to the spreading of spruce to areas where it would not grow otherwise (Metsätalous ja ympäristö 1994). From the 19505, forest structure has been modified by intensive silvicul ture. Widely used clearcutting and artificial regeneration methods have changed the forest landscape. They have resulted in even-aged stands, the de crease of mixed forests and stands dominated by broadleaved trees, and in excessive planting of pine at the cost of other tree species (Metsätalous ja ympäristö 1994). During the past ten years, silvicultural methods have been diversified significantly. Today, Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris ) is the main species in 65 % of the pro ductive forest area. Norway spruce is the predominant species on 26 %, and birches (Betula pendula and B. pubescens) are the main species on 7 %. The rest is dominated by other broadleaves, mainly aspen and alder (Metsätilastol linen vuosikirja 1994). Exotic tree species have not been used in Finland on a large scale (Table 5 J). Table 5.3 Total growing stock volume by tree species in Finland (Yearbook of Nordic statistics 1994). Finland's forest resources and their annual growth have increased from the beginning of the 1960 s (Table 5.4). The annual growth is continuing to in crease, primarily due to the relatively high percentage of young, fast-growing stands. At the beginning of the 19905, only about 60 % of the total growth was harvested annually (Parviainen 1994). The situation is partly caused by inten sive forest management and partly by the decreased dependence of forest own ers on income from selling timber. In addition, attitudes opposed to large scale cuttings have become common. These trends and the relatively low in dustrial demand for domestic roundwood have contributed to a situation where less timber is felled than grown (Seppälä 1994). Million m3 % Scots pine 850 45 Norway spruce 690 37 Broadleaved 340 18 86 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 5.4 Growing stock, net annual increment and removals in exploitable forest in Finland (figures over bark; the removals in 1990 have been converted to over bark figures by multiply ing by 1.16). Iceland Iceland is an island of 104,000 km 2 . About 25 %of its surface is covered with vegetation. The center of the island is covered with glaciers, mountains and deserts. All productive farmland is found below 100 m above sea level (Lines 1990). Forests are situated in areas below 400 m above sea level (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). At the time of the Viking settlement in the 9th century it is believed that vegetation covered about 75 % of the land area and it is estimated that birch occurred on 25 % of the total land area (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). The Vi kings brought sheep with them which led to a big expansion in sheep farming in the 19th and 20th century. By the turn of the century, overgrazing and tree felling for firewood, charcoal and construction had destroyed almost all native birch woodlands and caused severe erosion problems (Lines 1990). The native flora of Iceland consists of 440 species. Native trees are limited to Populus tremula, Sorbus aucuparia , Betula pubescens, Betula nana, Juni perus communis and 5 species of Salix (Lines 1990, Naturskogar i Norden 1994). Today birch forests cover 125,000 ha, i.e. 1.2 % of the total land area (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). About 80 % of these forests are less than two meters high (Blöndal et ai. 1986). Some 10-15 % of the natural birch forests are protected against sheep by fences. However, these fenced forests have of ten been thinned and exotic species have been planted among the domestic ones. Because of the decrease in the amount of sheep and grazing, birch for ests are also recovering in non-fenced areas (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). The first efforts to establish new forests in Iceland were made at the be ginning of the 20th century. Exotic tree species including Pinus mugo, Pic e a abies , Larix sibirica , Picea engelmannii and Pinus aristata were planted in 1950 1960 1970 1990 Growing stock, 1000 m 3 1 456 000 1 430 000 1 445 000 1 790 000 Growing stock, m 3/ha 80 79 77 92 Net annual increment, 1000 m 3 53 300 52 200 55 780 81 625 Total removals, 1000 m3 44 890 50 290 50 270 51 040 Net annual increment, m 3/ha 2.9 2.9 3.0 4.2 Removals m 3/ha 2.5 2.8 2.7 2.6 Sources: years 1950, 1960, 1970 (European timber trends. (Outlook for the European... 1994). .. 1986), year 1990 87 Timber production and the forest industry small groups in eastern and northern Iceland (Loftsson 1993). Trials with ex otics were interrupted for the period 1908-1935 and efforts were concentrated on enclosing native birch woodlands. After the Second World War, the use of exotics started again. In 1950-1960, Scots pine was the main species. Sitka spruce was widely used between 1950 and 1963. Norway spruce was planted on a large scale between 1958 and 1972. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) was first planted in 1940 and from 1960 it has been one of the most popular exot ics. The first Siberian larch plantations were established in 1922 and it is now the most widely planted species (Lines 1990). The main species planted for wood production are Siberian larch, Sitka spruce, Lodgepole pine and black cottonwood. Four species are planted for Christmas tree production: Engelman spruce, Norway spruce, subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and Lodgepole pine (Blöndal 1993). A large afforestation project has been initiated in east Iceland, where, dur ing the next four decades, 80 landowners aim to establish 15,000 ha of produc tion forests. This forest development project is possible because the recent agricultural recession has released land for planting that otherwise would have been maintained for grazing (Loftsson 1993). Norway Productive forests cover 22 % (7 million ha) of the land area in Norway. Agri culture is practised on 3 %. The remaining 75 % consist of non-commercial forests, mountains, glaciers, lakes and built-up areas. About 70 % of the area is above the timberline and 25 % of the productive forest area is so steep that some form of cable transportation for timber extraction is required (Forestry in Norway 1991, Agriculture in Norway 1993, Landbruksdepartementet's... 1994). The Norwegian forest landscape has been affected by grazing. On the west coast, large areas were burned 1,500-2,000 years ago to form pasture. Part of these areas has been planted with spruce while part is still treeless. The mon tane forests have been shaped by forest grazing, which was most widespread in the first half of the 19th century. In some places the pressure was so intense that the timberline moved downwards. Industries like mining, and salt and tar production have also affected the landscape through using large amounts of wood (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). By the end of the 18th century, the cutting of large diameter trees for sawmills and exports had been so intensive that such trees could not be found any more in southern Norway. Because of this, timber traders left for Sweden and Finland to look for untouched forests for cutting (e.g. Mattsson & Östlund 1992). Intensive forest management (clearcutting, the following soil preparation, planting, cleaning and thinning) have affected the forests in Norway from the 19505. Today, about half of the productive forests are younger than 50 years (except in the county of Finnmark). Forests older than 160 years comprise less 88 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries than 0.6 % of the productive forest area but 36 % are older than 80 years. Plan tations cover about 20 % of the forest area (Naturskogar i Norden 1994, Nor wegian forest... 1994). The predominant species in Norway are spruce and pine (Table 5.5). The main coniferous areas are situated in the southeast and central Norway. Else where in the country the landscape is dominated by birch and scattered patches of conifers. Other important species are aspen and alder. The forests along the south coast contain a larger share of broadleaves (Forestry in Norway 1991, Agriculture in Norway 1993, Scandinavia 1993). About 8,000 ha are planted with 50 foreign species. Sitka spruce has been used to replace birch and pine on the west coast. Lodgepole pine has been planted in harsh areas instead of native pine, because it is more resistant to snow, cold and damage caused by fungi (Landbruksdepartementet's... 1994). Table 5.5 Total growing stock volume by tree species in Norway (Yearbook of Nordic statistics 1994). There is at present more standing timber than ever before in Norway. For est resources have increased by 70 % from 1920. The biggest relative increase has been in broadleaves and pine. Still, spruce is the predominant species (okt verdiskapning... 1994). The situation has changed remarkably compared to the turn of the century when cuttings were higher than annual growth (Table 5.6). Table 5.6 Growing stock, net annual increment and removals in exploitable forest in Norway (figures over bark; the removals in 1990 have been converted to over bark figures by multiply ing by 1.16). Million m 3 % Scots pine 214 32 Norway spruce 314 47 Broadleaved 137 21 1950 1960 1970 1990 Growing stock, 1000 m 3 436 000 465 000 516 000 630 000 Growing stock, m 3/ha 68 72 79 95 Net annual increment, 1000 m 3 14 370 14 720 15 770 20 721 Total removals, 1000 m 3 11 317 10 065 9 660 13 524 Net annual increment, m 3/ha 2.2 2.3 2.4 3.1 Removals m 3/ha 1.8 1.6 1.5 2.0 Sources: years 1950, 1960, 1970 (European timber trends.. (Outlook for the European... 1994). . 1986), year 1990 89 Timber production and the forest industry Sweden Waterways cover 9 % of the total area of Sweden. About 56 % (23 million ha) of the land area is forested. Agricultural fields cover about 8 %, swamps 11 %, (4,6 million ha) and mountains 8 %. The rest includes protected and built up areas (Skogsstatistisk ärsbok 1994). Many factors which have affected the structure of Swedish forests are very similar to those that have shaped the forests in Finland. They include forest fires, shifting cultivation, forest grazing and tar burning. However, in the 17th century ore mining was much more widespread than in Finland. This industry used large amounts of timber, mainly in the form of charcoal. Also, production of potash from broadleaved trees was more common in Sweden (Mattsson & Östlund 1992, Kulturmiljövärd... 1992). Because of intensive use by the rural population, the forest resources of southern and central Sweden by the middle of the 19th century are estimated to have been about 50 % smaller than today (Naturskogar i Norden 1994). In the latter half of the 19th century timber exports from Sweden led to overex ploitation and impoverishment of forests, especially in the northern parts of the country. According to Remröd (1991), "Old and thick-trunked trees were chopped down and floated to the coast. Only the timber that was thin, rotten and valueless was left behind. Much of this devastation was financed with for eign capital". When the big trees in accessible areas had been cut, the sawmills started to utilize smaller timber. The already high-graded forests were cut se lectively again. As a result of the intensive and unorganized utilization, the volume of timber resources in Swedish forests by the turn of the 20th century was smaller than ever before (Mattsson & Östlund 1992). Since the 19505, clearcutting has dominated Swedish forestry. Natural for ests have often been replaced with cultivated ones. Many species of plants and animals that require long-term continuity have become threatened by this de velopment, and a number of species are already extinct. The biological pro duction capacity of forest soil has been affected by drainage, clearcutting and soil preparation with the consequent loss of nutrients. These problems have also been admitted by the government and the forest industry. During the past ten years, a number of measures have been implemented to increase the extent to which the environment is taken into consideration in forestry, both by vol untary means and by legislation (A search... 1994, Strategy for sustainable de velopment... 1994). Two thirds of Sweden belong to the boreal coniferous zone, the southern part belongs to the temperate mixed forest zone. Pine is the predominant spe cies in the north, spruce in the south. Birch occurs as a natural interspersion in coniferous forests (Table 5.7). Over the past few years there has been an in crease in the production of broadleaved trees to meet the rising demand for hardwood from pulp and paper mills (Scandinavia 1993). 90 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 5.7 Total growing stock volume by tree species in Sweden (Yearbook of Nordic statistics 1994). The Lodgepole pine plantations in the northern part of Sweden form the largest use of exotics in Scandinavia. At the end of the 19605, the large Swed ish forest companies announced their great expectations for Lodgepole pine, based on experimental plantations. Planting on a commercial scale started with full impetus during the 19705. By 1991, the plantations exceeded 500,000 hec tares. A fungal attack in the late 1980 s contributed to a reduction in planting. Since 1985, the annual planting of Lodgepole pine has been decreasing. In 1992, the total planted area was 13,700 ha (Contortatallen i Sverige... 1992, Skogsstatistisk ärsbok 1994). The timber resources of Sweden are now 60 % larger than they were at the beginning of the 1920 s (Wibe 1992). Annual removals reached a peak in the 19705. Since then they have been decreasing (Table 5.8). The increase has been particularly high in the southern parts of the country and for trees with a diameter above 25 cm. Since the period 1968-1972, growth has risen by 29 % (25 % for conifers and 49 % for broadleaved trees). Because of insufficient regeneration in the past, Sweden now has a shortage of middle-aged stands, but the share of forests mature for final felling is remarkably large (Skogssta tistisk ärsbok 1994). Table 5.8 Growing stock, net annual increment and removals in exploitable forest in Sweden (figures over bark; the removals in 1990 have been converted to over bark figures by multiply ing by 1.16). Million m 3 % Scots pine 1 078 39 Norway spruce 1 244 44 Broadleaved 426 15 1950 1960 1970 1990 Growing stock, 1000 m 3 1 820 000 2 089 000 2 288 000 2 557 000 Growing stock, m 3/ha 79 104 98 116 Net annual increment, 1000 m 3 57 000 65 100 63 300 91 300 Total removals, 1000 m 3 43 500 48 910 66 620 62 870 Net annual increment, m 3/ha 2.5 3.3 2.7 4.1 Removals m 3/ha 1.9 2.4 2.8 2.9 Sources: years 1950, 1960, 1970 (European timber trends. (Outlook for the European... 1994). .. 1986), year 1990 91 Timber production and the forest industry 5.3 Silviculture By the end of the 19th century, the forest resources of the Nordic countries were in a degraded state because of overutilization. Silvicultural methods evolved fast in the first half of the 20th century and were intensified in the 1960 s and 19705, the main aim being timber production. This trend continued until environmental movements and the public reacted and started to demand more diverse forest environments. Today, all Nordic countries are looking for new ways to manage forests more in harmony with nature and concern for other interests than timber production is increasing. Denmark The forests of Denmark are artificial and have been managed very intensively. Denmark has a long tradition of heavy thinnings which have been carried out at short intervals (Brief glimpses... 1982). A typical Danish forest is divided into small parts, in each of which there grows only one tree species. Conifers are planted manually. Broadleaves are regenerated by self-seeding or by arti ficial sowing. Soil preparation consists of light surface treatment (Jespersen 1989). Forest management in Denmark is nowadays clearly less intensive than 50 years ago partly due to the higher salaries which make silvicultural work less profitable. In addition, people's attitudes have turned against such intensive methods as fertilization and the use of pesticides (Honore & Jespersen 1989, Jespersen 1989). The Forest Act of 1989 and the Nature Management Act of the same year define Denmark's forestry policy and silvicultural objectives. The Forest Act describes "good and multiple-use forest management" in detail. The Act also contains prescriptions for the enhancement of biodiversity, for example con cerning the creation and management of broadleaved forests. The Nature Man agement Act emphasizes the need to increase the amount of forest (Grayson 1993). Both these and a few other Acts contain prescriptions for subsidies for various forest operations from nature protection to intensive timber production (Strategy for sustainable... 1994, see also Grayson 1993). Agger and Koch (1989) elaborate the future needs and possibilities of in creasing the variation and ecological stability of Danish forests. First of all, the very few still remaining original natural forests should be protected. Other forests should be managed so that the conditions resemble as much as possible the structure and functions of the original, untouched natural forests. General ly, a high percentage of deciduous forests should be preferred with tree species of local origin, and the continuity of the stands should be high, with a number of old and dead trees. Hiibertz and Ovesen (1989) give further advice for forest managers. For example, monocultures should be converted to mixed forests and the underbrush should be retained, especially in forest edges. 92 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries In 1991, the Forest and Nature Agency published a handbook on multiple use forestry prepared by Koch and Kristiansen. This booklet includes detailed recommendations on how to integrate timber production and the other forest benefits. Finland Selection cuttings were the main method for timber harvesting before the 1940 s in Finland. They resulted in the disappearance of large diameter trees and in poor quality and slow growth of the remaining trees. From the 19505, new silvicultural methods were increasingly utilized. They included regener ating pine by the seed tree method and spruce with the help of shelterwood. When using these methods, the forest was grown even-aged until maturity and regeneration felling. Thinning was done from below (Parviainen & Sep pänen 1994). However, selection cuttings were still a common practice in pri vate forests until the 1960 s (Leikola 1987). After the Second World War, the timber-processing industry was devel oped to earn export income and to create capital for the building of the indus trial sector. Consequently, the utilization of timber resources increased and in the 1950 s cuttings exceeded growth. This led to programs aiming at the in tensification of timber production (Seppälä 1994). The period 1965-1974 was the most intensive time for Finnish silviculture; investments in clearcutting, artificial regeneration, fertilization, drainage and soil preparation were in creased substantially (Leikola 1987). Since the 19705, environmental organizations and forest owners have been arguing for more ecological and diverse silvicultural methods. However, the Forest 2000 -Programme (a long-term plan for forestry and forest industry in Finland) from the year 1985 still recommended clearcuttings, planting and fer tilization (Metsä 2000... 1985, Leikola 1987). The Programme was revised in 1992. The new version included information on the environmental impacts of clearcutting, soil preparation, fertilization and drainage but explicit new silvi cultural recommendations were not outlined (Metsä 2000... 1992, The repre sentation... 1992). Private forest owners, forestry companies and state foresters started to di versify their silvicultural methods little by little already in the 1980 s. For ex ample, the Forestry Centre Tapio, an organization for guiding private forestry, published new environmental guidelines in 1989 (Metsäluonnon hoito... 1989). Really radical changes have come about as a consequence of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 and the second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe which was held in Helsinki in June 1993. The aim of the Helsinki conference was to promote the implementation of the forest-related UNCED agreements in Europe (Ministerial Conference... 1993, UNCED... 1993). 93 Timber production and the forest industry Simultaneously with active participation in international processes, Fin land has started to reform its own silvicultural practices. In May 1993, a work ing group consisting of representatives from the most prominent interest groups in the forestry sector was set up to outline new environmental guide lines for forestry in Finland. The work was concluded in July 1994. The report of the working group, which has been confirmed both by the Ministry of Ag riculture and Forestry and the Ministry of the Environment, can be regarded as the plan for ecologically sustainable forestry in Finland. It will form part of a more comprehensive national forest plan, which will be prepared in the future (Metsätalous ja ympäristö 1994, New environmental... 1994). The Ministry of the Environment has produced a separate plan for the protection of biodiver sity in forests (Suomen metsäluonnon... 1994). The need for reforms has also led to the rewriting of Finnish forestry legislation. The new laws are expected to be finalized in 1995. The new environmental guidelines give explicit silvicultural advice con cerning regeneration, final fellings, prescribed burning, soil preparation, field afforestation, stand management, use of herbicides, fertilization, drainage, building of forest roads, harvesting, and management of fragile forests, for ex ample, in high elevations and on islands (New environmental... 1994). In ad dition to the official process, Finnish forestry organizations and enterprises have produced their own silvicultural guidelines (e.g. Finnish Forest and Park Service: Forestry; environment guide 1994, National Forest Extension Serv ice: Luonnonläheinen metsänhoito... 1994, Finnish Forest Industries Federa tion: Kalland & Pätilä 1993). The Finnish Forest Research Institute has also published a report on eco logically sustainable silviculture (Parviainen & Seppänen 1994). According to Parviainen's summary in the Journal of Forestry (1994), Finland's new silvi cultural principles include small-scale forest regeneration, prescribed burn ing, favoring mixed forest stands, avoidance of over-mature and excessive stand densities, preservation of mosaic-like variability, and maintenance of ecologically valuable corridors and protective zones. Iceland Accurate figures for the plantations in Iceland are not available, but the area of planted woodland is estimated to be about 15,000 ha. The majority of the plantations consist of exotic species, most of which have been established in the birch woodland (Blöndal 1993). Native birch has been planted increasingly in the 19905. This is done by planting small scattered islands of birch and allowing the land between to re generate by seeding from the mother trees (Blöndal 1993). Private landowners favour the local birch over the exotics (Loftsson 1993). The use of soil preparation has increased lately in Icelandic forestry. From 1960, several small areas of marshland have been drained for planting by 94 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries ploughing. Only the Christmas tree plantations are fertilized. Lupinus nootkat ensis is used for site amelioration in eroded areas. It rapidly colonizes areas and through symbiotic bacteria fixes nitrogen. Some of the nitrogen becomes available for other species which invade or are planted among the lupines (Blöndal et ai. 1986). Icelandic silvicultural specialities also include fencing against sheep and horses (Blöndal et ai. 1986) and the production of seedlings in greenhouses which are sometimes heated by geothermal spring water (Lines 1990). A long-term strategy for the protection of Iceland's birch forests will be set up in the near future. It will be based on the information obtained from an inventory of native woodlands which was carried out in 1985-1990 (Natur skogar i Norden 1994). Norway Like its eastern neighbours, Norway entered the era of clearcuttings followed by artificial or natural regeneration after the Second World War. Natural regeneration has been mainly practised in pine forests. Timberline forests have been harvested with selection cuttings. The development of mechaniza tion in the forest started also in the mid-1950s (Forestry in Norway 1991). The rationalization, use of large fnachines and building of forest roads was accelerated in the 1960 s and 19705. Clearcut areas and plantations became prominent components of the forest landscape. This led to dissatisfaction and demands to increase the amount of protected forest areas and to modify forest ry practices to be more acceptable from the viewpoint of recreation and nature protection (Flersidig skogbruk... 1990). According to Grayson (1993), the highly mechanized methods of the 1970 s also led to growing emphasis on fa vouring smaller-scale labour-intensive technologies. Silviculture was further disintensified in 1989 when it was decided that no more state subsidies be giv en for the use of herbicides, strong soil preparation and fertilization on peat lands (Flersidig skogbruk... 1990). The Norwegians have produced a considerable amount of environmental guidelines for carrying out silvicultural activities. The leading forestry journal Norsk Skogbruk has published three special issues containing advice for prac tical foresters (Landskapsvern... 1978, Flerbruk... 1986, Flersidig skogbruk... 1990). Also the Royal Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture has contributed to the discussion (e.g. Flersidig skogbruk... 1989). Researchers have been in volved in developing alternative methods as well (e.g. Petersen 1989, Solbraa 1989, Solbraa & Gronvold 1992). As a follow-up to the UNCED Conference, Norway is preparing a nation al strategy for the preservation and sustainable utilization of biological diver sity (Landbruksdepartementet's... 1994). Measures for the forestry sector will include "amendments to regulations and administrative rules to give more em phasis to biodiversity, more active use of legal powers against environmental- 95 Timber production and the forest industry ly unsound operations or practices, further development of planning tools and development of strategies for management of ecologically important areas" (Norwegian forest... 1994). Sweden Selection cutting was also the dominant harvesting method in Sweden until the Second World War, after which management by compartments (trakthyg gesbruk) became the most common method. This meant that large areas of selectively thinned forests were clearfelled and planted or sown. The method led to the development of other silvicultural technologies like soil preparation practices, establishment of seed tree orchards, seedling production and forest tree breeding (Andersson 1992). According to Andersson (1992), Sweden outlined an economic policy in the 19405, which clearly chose the forest and metal industry as the means of financing for the building of the desired welfare state. Consequently, the main objective of silvicultural methods became the production of timber for indus try. In the 1960 s and 19705, the biological and environmental results of the ra tionalization and adoption of large-scale methods were found unsatisfactory. This led to public debate on clearcutting and the use of herbicides (Remröd 1991, Andersson 1992). Still, the annual amount of clearcutting kept on in creasing until 1983, after which it started to decrease slowly. The use of her bicides for weeding was abolished by law in 1980. Since 1983, there has been the possibility of exemptions, but this has been sparsely used. No spraying of herbicides has occurred since 1986 (Skogsstatistisk ärsbok 1994). Generally, silviculture was most intensive in the first half of the 1980 s in Sweden. The Swedish forest legislation is being liberalized and subsidies other than those for environmental purposes are disappearing (Outlook for the Europe an... 1994). The Swedish parliament approved the new forest policy in May 1993. The previous policy was found to be unsuccessful in the fields of nature conservation and production of high quality timber. The new environmental and production goals of Swedish forestry are the following (Sweden's new... 1994): 1) The productivity of forest land shall be preserved. Biodiversity and genetic variation in the forests shall be secured. Forest must be managed so that plant and animal species which exist naturally in the forest ecosystems, can survive under natural conditions and in vigorous populations. Endangered species and vegetation types shall be protected. The forests' historical, aes thetic and social values must be defended. 2) Forests and forest land shall be utilized efficiently aiming at a sustainable and valuable yield. The composition of forest production must be such that it has the potential of satisfying different human needs in the future. 96 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Swedes have a good knowledge basis for developing ecologically and cul turally sound forestry practices. Many handbooks on fauna and flora manage ment in forestry were published already in the 1980 s (e.g. Ahlen et al. 1984, Ingelög et al. 1984, Ehnström & Walden 1986). Practical silvicultural guide lines for private forest owners became available in 1990 (Rikare skog... 1990). Recently, comprehensive books have been published on special issues such as cultural heritage and landscape (e.g. Kulturmiljövärd... 1992, Gustavsson & Ingelög 1994). Also the big forest companies have started to experiment with new methods and to document their results (A search... 1994). 5.4 Forest industry Until the 20th century, timber was mainly used as a raw material in the pro duction of tar and potash, for construction and as fuelwood for household needs and industry, for example in metal processing. The first wood-process ing enterprises, waterpowered sawmills, were established in the 16th century. The present-day forest industry started to evolve in the latter half of the 19th century, after the invention of the technology necessary for making paper from wood fibre (Seppälä 1994). Up until at present, it has been customary to divide the forest industry into mechanical and chemical wood processing. The main products of mechanical wood processing are sawnwood, plywood, particle boards, fibreboards and more elaborated products such as furniture, houses and building components. The chemical forest industry produces pulp, paper and paperboard. Today, a new terminology is being developed. For example, in Finland the two main sectors of forest industry are increasingly called wood products industry and pulp and paper industry. Recently, new industrial ways of using timber and wood have started to evolve. They include large-scale Christmas tree production and trade, the live lihoods connected to the growing of biomass for energy production and the so called tourism industry, which is partly based on culturally ingenious carpen try products and landscapes created by standing timber. The processing of non-wood forest-based raw materials has traditionally not been included in the scope of the forest industry concept in the Nordic countries. The wood-processing forest industry is a prominent sector in the national economies of Finland, Norway and Sweden. In these countries, the total pro duction of forest industries is still increasing, although the share of income generated is decreasing compared to other branches of economy. In Denmark, and to some extent also in Iceland, wood processing is recognized as a signif icant local livelihood. 97 Timber production and the forest industry Denmark The industrial sector of Denmark is mainly based on the processing of imported raw materials and the country is dependent on a high level of exports. The principal export articles are agricultural products, machinery, chemicals and furniture (Scandinavia... 1993). Most of the wood-processing enterprises are situated in rural areas. Consequently, although forestry and forest industry do not form a major branch of the economy in Denmark, they may be crucially important employers locally ( Table 5.9) (En fremtidig skov politik 1986). Table 5.9 Forest products in the economy of Denmark, million US $ in 1991 (Forestry statis tics...1993). In the Danish forest industry, the emphasis is on mechanical wood processing. Because of this the industry is very dependent on building activity and the demand for furniture. About three quarters of the furniture manufac tured in Denmark is exported, making the country the fourth largest European furniture exporter (Scandinavia... 1993). Other important wood-processing branches include sawmills, particle-board factories and value-added pro duction including, for example, manufacturing of wooden floors. The pro duction structure in the mechanical forest industry sector is changing, as in the other Nordic countries, towards less but bigger enterprises (Table 5.10) (Brief glimpses... 1982, En fremtidig skovpolitik 1986). Table 5.10 Production and trade of roundwood and forest industry products in Denmark in 1992 (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja... 1994). The production and export of Christmas trees and greenery has become an increasingly important income source for Danish forest owners. Though cov ering only about 5 % of total forest area, they produce 20-25 % of total income from forests (Linddal 1993). Most of the current exports go to Germany, but Production % of GDP Imports Exports % of trade Consumption 584 0 1 766 417 1 1 933 Production Imports Exports Roundwood, 1000 m 3 2 000 553 . 576 Sawnwood and wood-based panels, 1000 m 3 867 2 246 189 Pulp, 1000 MT 100 96 88 Paper and paperboard, 1000 MT 341 1 198 216 98 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Hong Kong and Japan are emerging as new markets (Scandinavia... 1993). Christmas trees and decoration greenery may be cultivated in short rotation cy cles in up to 10 % of the forest area (Act of forests... 1989). A plan of the Ministry of Agriculture for the development of wood and wood-based products (1993/94) intends to make use of the non-utilized re sources of the forestry sector. The plan proposes, among other things, in creased production of particle boards and other wood-based panels and improvement of technologies to reduce the amount of waste in industrial processing. Another plan, the Biomass Agreement (1993) aims at increasing the utilization of biomass for energy production in big power stations. The agreement is expected to lead to the development of markets for wood of small dimensions and poor quality (Strategy for sustainable forest... 1994). Finland In Finland, the forest industry plays a greater role in the national economy than in any other industrial country of the world and a significant proportion of manufacturing in the metal industry is connected to the forest sector (e.g. paper machines, pulp boilers and forest harvesting machines). The majority of forest industry products are exported. The share of imported raw materials is smaller than in other export sectors, on the average only 16 %. This makes the forest industry the most important net export sector in Finland (Tables 5.11 and 5.12) (Forest industry... 1993). The diversification of the structure of exports to decrease dependence on one sector of industry was set as a goal of national policy in the 19705. Since then, the share of forest industry of the total value of exports has decreased, although slowly, being 56 % in 1970, 44 % in 1980 and 38 % in 1990 (Met sätilastollinen vuosikirja 1994, Seppälä 1994). Table 5.11 Forest products in the economy of Finland, million US $ in 1991 (Forestry statis tics... 1993). The most important production sector within mechanical wood processing is the sawmill industry. Most of its products (99 %) are made from conifers (Gullichsen et ai. 1994). In the 1980 s, the production and ownership structure of the sawmill industry changed; small independent sawmills were increasing ly replaced by large enterprises. In the 19905, about 50 % of the total produc tion capacity of sawmilling was covered by 5 big companies. Some 120 of the 4,000 sawmills in Finland export their products. The rest are small enterprises acting mainly in local markets (Gullichsen et ai. 1994). Production % of GDP Imports Exports % of trade Consumption 8 959 7 512 8 238 36 1 233 99 Timber production and the forest industry The main products of the plywood industry include birch, spruce and mixed plywoods as well as special and processed plywood. The bulk of ply wood and more than half of fibreboards are exported. Particle boards for build ing and the furniture industry are mainly used in the domestic market. The production of plywood is hampered by the lack of suitable birch raw material (Forest industry... 1993). The 1980 s witnessed a general decrease in production in the mechanical wood-processing industry. In the 19905, the market share of Finland has increased, but structural problems make the industry unstable and vulnerable to international market fluctuations. There is pressure to increase value added, to modernize the equipment and to develop special products for specific cus tomer groups (Seppälä 1993). The production of pulp and paper grew strongly in the 1980 s. Today, most investments are made in the production of high quality printing and writing pa pers. The production of newsprint has not grown significantly since the 19705. The share of wood in the final paper products has decreased as the degree of processing has risen. In addition to woodpulp, the paper industry nowadays consumes considerable quantities of pigments either as fillers mixed with the fibre or as paper coating pigments. They improve printing properties (Forest industry... 1993). Recycled fibre forms only about 5 % of the raw material, al though 45 % of domestic waste paper is collected for recycling. Lack of do mestic raw material limits the possibility of increasing the share of recycled fibre in Finnish paper products. Transporting waste paper from abroad would be environmentally unfeasible (Seppälä 1993, Gullichsen 1994). The com bined use of fillers and recycled fibre in paper and paperboard is expected to increase from 17 % in 1990 to 25 % in 2010, the rest being woodpulp (Seppälä 1993). Table 5.12 Production and trade of roundwood and forest industry products in Finland in 1992 (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja... 1994). The structure of pulp and paper industry is developing towards large com panies with part of their activities abroad. Production costs, especially timber and labour, are relatively high in Finland. Consequently, the strategy of the in- Production Imports Exports Roundwood, 1000 m 3 39 000 6 075 572 Sawnwood and wood-based panels, 1000 m 3 7 922 198 5 156 Pulp, 1000 MT 8617 199 1 291 Paper and paperboard, 1000 MT 8 823 144 7 882 100 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries dustry is to invest in innovative products and technologies to be able to com pete with enterprises situated in countries with lower costs (Seppälä 1993). A period of intensive forestry and forest industry policy planning started in Finland in the 1960 s as a consequence of the shortage of wood for industrial purposes. The latest plan, the Forest 2000 Programme, extends to the year 2010 and it is the first one to begin with a timber surplus situation (Saasta moinen 1987). The recommendations concerning the forest industry of the re vised Forest 2000 Programme are the following (The representation... 1992): 1) Improvement of competitiveness by lowering the labour cost per unit pro duced and increasing productivity. The costs of roundwood, harvesting and transporting should also be decreased. 2) Pointing research and product development activities towards new and environmentally friendly products and technologies. 3) Continued foreign investments, especially in marketing and distribution. 4) The sawmill industry and the forest owners should come to a consensus on how to improve the competitiveness of sawmills and how to increase their production. The Forest 2000 Programme has been criticized over inadequate integra tion of non-wood and multiple-use aspects with timber production (Saasta moinen 1987). Furthermore, the industrial policy planning tradition has re cently started to change in Finland. According to the National Industrial Strat egy, control and subsidies should be replaced by long-term promotion of the overall preconditions. The aim of the Strategy is to serve as a basis for the fu ture industrial programs and measures (Kansallinen teollisuusstrategia 1993). Iceland About 3 % of Iceland's land area is capable of growing production forests but less than 1 % of the total land area would be needed to supply the domestic demand for wood raw material (Gunnarsson et al. 1987). However, practically all sawnwood, wood-based panels and paper products are imported to the island. Local wood-processing enterprises are likely to develop when the plantations grow older. In 1987, the main wood-based forest products of Iceland were Christmas trees (10,765 trees), firewood (141 tons), turnery wood (12 m 3) and fencing stakes (3,000 stakes) (Snorsson 1992). The native birch is used for fencing stakes, turnery wood and firewood. The latter is used both for home fires and for smoking food (mutton, herring). Larch from thinnings is good for fencing stakes and posts. Norway spruce and Lodgepole pine have been popular as Christmas trees since 1970. The price of Christmas trees has been decided on the basis of the price of trees imported from Denmark (Blöndal et al. 1986). Forestry has recently been accepted as a part of agriculture and as a means of offering the rural districts new livelihood opportunities. The reason for this 101 Timber production and the forest industry is that Icelandic farming has suffered a marketing crisis and the number of sheep has had to be reduced. However, production forestry in Iceland can be achieved only with the help of financial support from the central government (Blöndalet al. 1986). Norway Forestry products account for the fifth largest export commodity group from Norway, after oil and gas, metals, shipping and fish. About 80 % of the pulp and paper and 40 % of the sawnwood production are exported. Three quarters of the pulp and paper exports and the greater part of sawnwood exports go to central Europe {Tables 5.13 and 5.14) (Agriculture in Norway 1993). Table 5.13 Forest products in the economy of Norway, million US $ in 1991 (Forestry statis tics... 1993). The Norwegian sawnwood industry consists of small and medium-size enterprises, mainly catering to home markets and often also to local markets. In 1991 there were 225 sawmills and planing mills, 7 particle-board mills lo cated throughout the country in districts with easy access to mountain birch and sawmill residues, and 4 fibreboard mills, two of which were integrated with sawmills (Forestry in Norway 1991). In recent years, the size of sawmills has increased and their number has decreased. At the same time the amount of employees has decreased (okt verdiskapning... 1994). Norway is the leading country in Scandinavia in using wood in buildings. This is a result of conscious efforts including a regularly awarded prize to re markable achievements in wooden architecture (Puun käytön... 1994). The overall strategy of the Norwegian sawnwood industry is to specialize in high quality products. This requires improved selection of raw material in an early stage of production and increased cooperation between the various actors in volved in the harvesting and processing chain (okt verdiskapning... 1994). The structure of the Norwegian pulp and paper industry has changed dur ing the past 10 years. The branch has become dominated by a few big compa nies. There has been "continuous concentration in fewer and larger mills, an extensive consolidation into stronger groups through take-over bids and share capital transfer and large capital investment in modern production equipment" (Forestry in Norway 1991). Newsprint is still the main product of the Norwegian chemical forest in dustry (Key figures 1994). However, Norske Skogindustrier, which is the big gest forest industry enterprise in Norway, aims at developing "new grades of Production % of GDP Imports Exports % of trade Consumption 2 400 2 708 1 517 4 1 592 102 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries wood-based paper to meet the demands of an ever more complex and quality conscious market" (Norske Skogindustrier... 1993). Table 5.14 Production and trade of roundwood and forest industry products in Norway in 1992 (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja... 1994). According to a working group consisting of representatives of forest in dustry, local administration, forest owners and forest research, the most impor tant objectives of the Norwegian mechanical and chemical forest industry during the next 10-15 years are: 1) cost efficient, environmentally sound pro duction of real and even quality products, and 2) production of products with high value added and creation of wood products which can compete succes fully with other materials (okt verdiskapning... 1994). Sweden In 1951, the share of forest industry products of the total value of exports was 42.5 % in Sweden. The forest industry is still the most important net export sector although its share of exports has decreased. The foreign currency earn ing capacity of the industry can be explained by the low demand for imported raw materials. Since 1951, the engineering industry has grown to be clearly the biggest industry sector in the Swedish economy (Tables 5.15 and 5.16) (Skogspolitiken... 1992, A search... 1994, Nordisk statistisk... 1994). Table 5.15 Forest products in the economy of Sweden, million US $ in 1991 (Forestry statis tics... 1993). In 1990, there were 2,423 sawmills in Sweden. Mills with an annual pro duction exceeding 5,000 m 3 account for 94 % of the total production. The number of mills has declined steadily from the 1960 s but production and pro ductivity have increased (Skogsstatistisk ärsbok 1994). The production of Production Imports Exports Roundwood, 1000 m 3 11 000 1 667 880 Sawnwood and wood-based panels, 1000 m 3 2 833 572 970 Pulp, 1000 MT 2 006 45 533 Paper and paperboard, 1000 MT 1 683 302 1 383 Production % of GDP Imports Exports % of trade Consumption 10 756 4 1 168 9 873 18 2 051 103 Timber production and the forest industry boards has been decreasing since the late 1980 s. In the near future only ply wood production is expected to increase (Scandinavia 1993). As in the other Scandinavian countries, the sawmilling industry of Sweden is in need of reor ganization to be able to compete internationally (Lönner & Libäck 1992). The development in the pulp and paper industry has been towards produc ing different types of paper instead of pulp for sale. During the past 30 years, the production of newsprint, paperboard and writing and printing papers has expanded significantly. The reason behind the increase in newsprint produc tion is the suitable long-fibre raw material from spruce and relatively cheap electricity. Production of special papers has also increased (Lönner & Libäck 1992). The structure of the Swedish forest industry has changed during the past few years through fusions and alliances. In 1950 there were 130 pulp and paper mills, by the beginning of 1970 s the amount had fallen to 80, and by the turn to the 1990 s only 20 were left. Today, three enterprises dominate the field and are responsible for 75 % of the turnover. These companies also have activities abroad, mainly in western Europe (Skogspolitiken... 1992). Table 5.16 Production and trade of roundwood and forest industry products in Sweden in 1992 (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja 1994). Swedish forest policy was re-evaluated in 1992. The emphasis of the ex tensive research and planning effort was on silviculture and its environmental consequences (Skogspolitiken... 1992). The forest industry has also been em phasizing the ecological aspects of timber production and harvesting in its public relations activities (e.g. Remröd 1991, The forest cycle... 1993, A search... 1994). 5.5 Future challenges Growing forest resources in Europe Timber resources are growing in all the Nordic countries and the annual cut is also expected to be smaller than the annual growth in the future. The same is Production Imports Exports Roundwood, 1000 m 3 54 000 6 335 1 008 Sawnwood and wood-based panels, 1000 m 3 12 931 528 8 485 Pulp, 1000 MT 9 908 202 2 756 Paper and paperboard, 1000 MT 8 376 318 6 624 104 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries happening in most European countries (Kuusela 1994, Outlook on the Euro pean... 1994). Central Europe has traditionally been the main market of Nordic forestry products, more than half of the exports go to member states of the European Union. In the long run, the change from shortage to abundance of timber re sources is likely to affect the structure of the forest industry and trade in Eu rope. Because of the increasing resource base and the huge supply of waste paper raw material for paper making, many of the present importing countries will have the possibility of developing their own forest industries to cover domestic demand (e.g. Lönner & Libäck 1992, Thörnqvist 1994). This new situation forces the Nordic countries to look for a new role and strategies in the European context. The process of adaptation and reorganization will be speed ed up by Finland's and Sweden's joining the European Union in 1995. Despite the increase of forest area and the amount of timber, the quality of the forests is unsatisfactory in Europe. A lot of the original biodiversity has been lost. There is very little old-growth forests left and it will take a long time to rehabilitate the man-made forests to resemble natural ecosystems (Dudley 1992). From the wood utilization point of view, the quality of forests is getting worse because of the lack of silvicultural treatment. The forests are becoming thick, which leads to reduced growth and poor quality of timber (Kuusela 1994). In addition, European forests are weakened by air pollution and the glo bal climate change may cause unexpected changes in ecosystems (Forest con dition... 1993, Decline... 1994, Kellomäki 1994 a, 1994 b). The above mentioned phenomena are also affecting the Nordic forests. If these problems can be solved both internationally and locally, increasing for est resources will provide good conditions for future timber utilization as well as for other forest uses, and for the restoration and protection of forest ecosys tems. Global competition The Nordic countries are nowadays more dependent on the trends of global trade of timber and forest products than ever before. The prices of most for estry products have been decreasing in global market during the past 30 years (Enroth 1992) and the industry is characterized by vulnerability to price fluc tuations in markets. The latest recession in the branch was around the turn of the 19905. At the moment, the Nordic forest industry is thriving and expand ing again. The global sawn timber markets are changing. The availability of good quality timber is likely to decrease in the future (okt verdiskapning... 1994). This concerns especially the supply of tropical timber. Environmental conser vation measures have decreased the supply of raw material from the large co niferous forests of western North America. Political instability of the former Soviet Union has kept the vast Russian timber resources away from the world 105 Timber production and the forest industry markets (Svanborg 1994). These trends have created at least temporarily new markets for Nordic sawnwood products, especially in the fast growing Asian economies. The rapidly growing use of recycled fibre is the most important single fac tor which has affected the pulp and paper markets in recent years. The amount of recycled fibre in paper products in the world is expected to increase to 36 % by the year 2000, in western Europe the corresponding figure is 45 % (Sep pälä 1993). This will change the competition situation for newsprint and pack aging materials. The production of these products will move close to cities where the raw material and markets are. The advantage of closeness to tradi tional wood raw material will decrease. Another factor affecting the trade of timber and forest products is the in creased availability of short-rotation wood in the markets. Pulp production based on plantations in South America and in southeast Asia has increased sig nificantly (Arjas & Häggblom 1993). Plantations are also increasing wood production in Europe, especially in France, Great Britain, Spain and Ireland (Enroth 1992). Short-rotation wood production has increased competition and lowered the prices in pulp markets (Kajaste 1994). Timber for sawmilling can also be produced in the plantations. This will increase the availability of low quality sawnwood and reduce the prices. The prices of high quality slowly grown northern sawn timber are, however, likely to stay on a rather high level because of the scarcity of raw material (Arjas & Häggblom 1993). To be able to act profitably in world markets, the Nordic countries have to specialize in products which are not affected by the competition created by recycled fibre and short-rotation wood production. Such products include high quality writing and printing papers, special papers and paperboard for food packages (Arjas & Häggblom 1993). The global demand for paper products has been estimated to grow by 2.5 % annually in the 1 9905. The technological readiness of the Nordic chemical forest industry to respond to the growing markets in paper products is among the best in the world. The international competitiveness of the Nordic sawn wood industry has not developed on a par with the chemical wood processing. About 70 % of the products of the mechanical forest industry are used for building. The skill to use wood in houses and in other constructions has badly deteriorated in Scandinavia during the past 50 years. One reason for this has been strict fire regulations. Now attitudes are changing and efforts are being made to develop, increase and diversify the product assortment (e.g. okt ver diskapning... 1994, Puun käytön... 1994, Thörnqvist 1994). To improve international competitiveness, the Nordic forest industries have been reorganizing themselves from the 1 980 s through company fusions. This has been done in order to rationalize production structure, to lower pro duction costs, to increase the ability to invest and to increase financial stabili ty. Scandinavian forest companies have also been buying and building 106 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries enterprises abroad to be closer to the markets. In 1990, 35 % of Swedish and 25 % of Finnish forest industry capacity was situated abroad (Seppälä 1993). Other ways to increase competitiveness include developing new products and technologies, increasing the efficiency of raw material utilization and manu facturing products in which the special properties of the Nordic tree species are important to the quality of the product (e.g. okt verdiskapning... 1994). The benefits gained by large-scale production are most significant in the chemical forest industry. In the mechanical forest industry, also small and me dium-size enterprises can be competitive because of customer specific prod ucts and their flexibility in adapting to changes in markets (Enroth 1992). The governments of Finland, Norway and Sweden are nowadays increasing sup port to small-scale mechanical wood processing for trade policy and employ ment reasons (e.g. Puun käytön... 1994). The new fast-evolving industry livelihoods having forest related applications include environmental technol ogy, data management systems and gene technology (Arjas & Häggblom 1993). The national assets of the Nordic countries include the relatively low price of energy, good transportation systems in and out of country, and state policies supporting the forest industry. Finland and Sweden are now facing new chal lenges because of the common monetary policy in the European Union which reduces the possibility of using monetary operations, for example devalua tions, to support the domestic economy (Heikka 1992). Environmental awareness Because of the increased availability of information on problems like air and water pollution, extinction of species and destruction of landscapes, the envi ronmental awareness of ordinary people, public administrators and industries is increasing. Consumers and retail customers of forestry enterprises are now adays probably the most powerful force guiding development in forestry. The strong multinational environmental organizations, for example World Wide Fund for Nature and Greenpeace, have acquired an active and influential role in global and national forestry debates (e.g. WWF submission... 1994, Kar jalainen 1994, Pennanen 1994). Furthermore, the development of environ mental awareness is speeded up by the fast improving provision of informa tion through the media and worldwide computer-based electronic informa tion networks. Buyers are increasingly requiring affirmation of the harmlessness of the utilization of forest resources and the impacts of industrial production. Conse quently, various ecolabelling and timber certification systems affecting Nor dic forestry are being developed (e.g. Forest Stewardship Council... 1994, The forest conservation... 1994). The public sector is participating in defining the ground rules for forest utilization by developing criteria and indicators for sus tainable forestry as an aftermath of the United Nations Conference of Environ- 107 Timber production and the forest industry ment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (e.g. Ministerial Conference... 1994). The official and voluntary Environmental and Social Im pact Assessments (EIAs and SIAs) also serve the purpose of increasing aware ness of the various consequences of resource use. Industries are utilizing lifecycle analyses (LCAs) to analyze their activities and to facilitate environ mentally conscious planning (Johdatus elinkaarianalyysin... 1994). The above-mentioned systematic analyzing methods and procedures will be in creasingly used by various interest groups acting in the fields of timber pro duction and wood processing. Commercial forestry companies have responded to public pressure by starting to pay more attention to the origins of raw materials and by improving their production processes. They have modified silvicultural practices in their own forests to be more ecologically sound and started to avoid buying timber from producers who are known to use unacceptable cutting methods. In processing, the "trend is towards tightly closed mills operated with the goal of eliminating all hazardous waste emissions" (Scandinavian... 1994). The Nor dic forest industries have already succeeded in cutting down many harmful emissions and specific plans have also been made to invest in environmentally sound technology in the future (e.g. Forest industry... 1993). Environmental problems related to the forest industry have exceptionally complicated societal connections. For example, in Finland the wood process ing industries account for about a quarter of the total consumption of primary energy and roughly 40 % of electricity consumption. This dependence con nects the forestry branch to energy policy decision making, including the prob lems created by fossil fuels and nuclear power. Future energy production decisions may lead to considerable restructuring in timber utilization and in dustrial processes. For example, chemical pulp production produces more en ergy than it consumes (cf. mechanical pulp production consumes a lot of energy) and efficient power stations can be built in pulp mills. If the price of energy rises in the future, the amount of chemical pulp production is likely to increase. Consequently, the demand for timber will also increase because chemical pulping consumes more wood raw material than mechanical pulping (Wahlström et al. 1994). Generally, recycling of waste paper is considered an environmentally de sirable goal, not least to reduce the waste management problems in densely in habited areas. However, the fibres can not be recycled forever and it may not be reasonable to transport the waste long distances. That is why it has been proposed that a balanced mix of recycling and burning of the waste should be sought (e.g Arjas & Häggblom 1993). Burning of excessive waste paper to produce energy could reduce the harmful effects of using non-renewable fos sil fuels in energy production and transport (The forest cycle... 1993). Despite the complicated environmental challenges, the Nordic forest in dustries are optimistic concerning their future. The forest-based industrial sys tem with its renewable raw materials and recyclable products has every 108 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries possibility of working in accordance with the natural cycles that control cli mate and the environment (The forest cycle... 1993, Forest industry... 1993). Employment Employment in the forestry sector has been decreasing steadily over the past 30 years because of increasing productivity in timber production and wood processing. For example, in Finland the amount of workers in forestry was 63,000 in 1982 and 28,000 in 1993. The corresponding figures for the forest industry are 120,000 and 73,000 (Table 5.17) (Skogspolitiken inför... 1992, Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja 1994, Strategy for sustainable forest... 1994). The strongest declining trend can be seen in forest work, due to the increased share of mechanized harvesting. Table 5.17 Employment in timber production and wood processing in Denmark, Finland, Nor way and Sweden. Fundamental changes are taking place in the rural areas of the Nordic countries. The profitability of farming is decreasing and the share of forestry in the economy of farmers is likely to increase as a consequence of European integration. Because of the small average size of private forest properties, most farms will have to reorganize their activities in order to survive (e.g. Hyttinen 1994, Selby 1994). New supplementary sources of income are needed. They include public welfare services, tourism, professions based on information technology, production of raw material for bioenergy, and small and middle sized manufacturing, for example processing non-wood forest-based raw ma terials (Idekatalog... 1988, Oksa 1994). A succesful and balanced creation of additional earning possibilities requires increased cooperation between the ad ministrations involved in rural policy. Most of productive forest land is owned by private people in Scandinavia. However, an increasing amount of forest owners live far away from their prop erties. New types of professions and private enterpreneurship could be created to provide silvicultural and timber harvesting services to the increasing amount of the absentee forest owners. These activities could provide working Timber production Wood processing Total Denmark 3 5 000 30 000 35 000 Finland 13 28 000 73 000 101 000 Norway 0 8 000 29 000 37 000 Sweden d 30 000 84 000 114 000 Sources: a) En fremtidig skovpolitik 1986. b) Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja 1994. c) Agriculture in Norway 1993. d) A search... 1993. 109 Timber production and the forest industry opportunities and supplementary income for the farmers and forest owners living in the countryside and could also be combined with efforts to produce high quality timber of various species for various purposes. To reverse the trend of decreasing employment in wood processing and to contribute to the economic structure of rural areas, it has been recommended that the amount of small and middle-size mechanical wood-processing enter prises should be increased (Toropainen 1994). A vital sawmill industry com bined with competitive wood-processing enterprises is also important for the forest owners, because 60-70 % of their stumpage earnings come from sawlog sales (Lönner & Libäck 1992, okt verdiskapning... 1994, Palo 1994). Net working and cooperation are seen as essential means when organizing the new small-scale production activities. The creation of markets for the products re quires investments in the promotion of wood as a building material and as a replacement for the materials based on non-renewable resources such as plas tic, aluminium, concrete and metals (e.g. The language of w00d... 1987, Nor dic w00d... 1994, Thörnqvist 1994). The main objective of regional policy in the Nordic countries has been to promote balanced development in all parts of the country (Grayson 1993, Re gional utveckling... 1994). The policy goals have included securing the rural population the same standard of living, both economically and socially, as in urban areas and narrowing the gap between incomes and employment in vari ous parts of the country (Skogspolitiken... 1992, Suomi... 1993, Selby 1994, okt verdiskapning... 1994). Grants and other economic support to agriculture and forestry have been an essential part of this policy. Today, the grants to tim ber production are being cut back and support to nature conservation, land scape management and other new branches of rural activity is increasing. The new forms of support to rural areas are being developed by the European Un ion and the national governments. References Act of forests: Denmark. 1989. Translation 7 June 1989. Miljoministeriet/Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 18 pp. Agger, P. & Koch, N.E. 1989. Sammenfatning og hovedkonklusioner. Summary: Conclusions. In: Naturen i Skoven. (Nature in forest.) Miljoministeriet/Skov og Naturstyrelsen, I lorsholm. p. 6-10. (In Danish.) Agriculture in Norway. 1993. Royal Ministry of Agriculture, Oslo. 14 pp. Ahlen, I. et al. 1984. Faunavärd i skogsbruket; allmän del. (Fauna management in forestry: general part.) Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 60 pp. (In Swedish.) Andersson, S. 1992. Dagens skogsbruk växer fram, 1950-1991. (The development of today's forestry, 1950-1991.) In: Elmberg, J., Bäckström, P.-O. & Lestander, T. (eds.). Vär skog: vägvalet. (Our forest: choosing the way.) LTs förlag, Stockholm, p. 39-87. (In Swedish.) 110 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Arjas, A. & Häggblom, R. 1993. Ajatuksia Suomen metsäteollisuuden tulevaisuu desta. (Thoughts about the future of Finnish forest industry.) 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Metsähallitus, Vantaa. 112 pp. Metsätalous ja ympäristö. (Forestry and environment.) 1994. Maa-ja metsätalous ministeriö, Metsätalouden ympäristöohjelmatyöryhmän mietintö 1994:3. 100 pp. (In Finnish.) Metsäteollisuuden vuosikirja 94. (Annual report of forest industry 94.) 1994. Met säteollisuus ry, Helsinki. 68 pp. (In Finnish.) Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja 1993-94. (Yearbook of forest statistics 1993-94.) 1994. The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki. 348 pp. (Charts and summary in English.) Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, 16-17 June 1993 in Helsinki: documents. 1993. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Helsinki. 55 pp. Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe, 16-17 June 1993 in Helsinki: European list of criteria and most suitable quantitative indicators. 1994. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Helsinki. 20 pp. Naturskogar i Norden. (Natural forests in the Nordic countries.) 1994. Nordisk Min isterräd, Nord 1994:7. 109 pp. (In Swedish.) New environmental programme for forestry in Finland. 1994. Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry/Ministry of the Environment, Helsinki. 63 pp. The Nordic Environment: present state, trends and threats. Nord 1993:12. 211 pp. 114 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Nordic Wood: Pohjoismainen puuteollisuuden tutkimus- ja tuotekehitysohjelma 1994-1996. 1994. (Nordic Wood: Nordic research and product development plan for wood industry 1994-1996.) 1994. TEKES, Helsinki. 4 pp. Norske Skogindustrier A.S: annual report 1993. 1993. Norske Skogindustrier A.S, Skogn. 49 pp. Norwegian Forest Management: information. 1994. The Royal Norwegian Ministry of Agriculture, Oslo. 6 pp. Oksa, J. (ed.). 1994. Syrjäisen seudun uudet kerrostumat. (New activities in remote rural areas.) Joensuun yliopisto, Karjalan tutkimuslaitoksen julkaisuja 110. 123 pp. (In Finnish.) okt verdiskapning fra skog. Skogbruk og skogindustri: perspektiver, utfordninger og omräder for forskning. (Increased value from the forest. Forestry and forest industry: perspectives, challenges and topics for research.) 1994. Norges Fors kningsräd, Oslo. 40 pp. (In Norwegian.) Outlook for the European forest resource and roundwood supply. 1994. FAO/ECE working paper. Draft. Palo, M. 1994. Ympäristötietoisen metsäpolitiikan strategia. (A strategy for environ mentally conscious forest policy.) In: Palo, M. & Hellström, E. 1994. Metsä politiikka valinkauhassa. (Forest policy in a melting pot.) Metsäntutkimuslai toksen tiedonanoja 471: (ln Finnish.) Parviainen, J. 1994. Finnish silviculture: managing for timber production and conser vation. Journal of Forestry, September 1994: 33-36. Parviainen, J. & Seppänen, P. 1994. Metsien ekologinen kestävyys ja metsänkäsitte lyvaihtoehdot. (Ecological sustainability of forests and silvicultural alterna tives.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 511. 110 pp. (In Finnish.) Pennanen, J. 1994. Villi ja vapaa metsä: raportti Suomen metsien luontaisesta ra kenteesta ja dynamiikasta sekä mahdollisuuksista kehittää luonnondynamiik kaan perustuva metsänhoitomalli. Summary: Wild and free forest: a report on the natural structure and dynamics of Finland's forests and the possibilities of developing a forest management model based on the natural forest dynamics. Greenpeace, Helsinki. 61 pp. Petersen, K. 1989. Skoglig flerbruk: en litteraturstudie. Norsk institutt for skogfors kning, As. 80 pp. Plum, P.M., Billeschou, A. & Thomsen J. 1990. Skovrejsning i Danmark. Summary: Increasing forest area in Denmark. Sveriges SkogsvärdsfÖrbunds Tidskrift 3: 28-33. (In Danish.) Puun käytön edistäminen rakentamisessa: puun rakennuskäytön edistämistyöryhmän muistio. (Increasing the use of wood in construction: a report by the commit tee for the promotion of the use of wood in construction.) 1994. Maa-ja met sätalousministeriö, Työryhmämuistio 1994:21. 26 pp. (In Finnish.) Regional utveckling i Norden: basprojektets ärsrapport 1993/94. (Development of regions in the Nordic countries: annual report of a base project 1993/94). Nord 1993:30. 148 pp. (In Swedish.) Remröd, J. 1991. The forest of opportunity. Skogsindustrierna, Stockholm. 102 pp. The representation of the revised Forest 2000 Programme: Finnish forest policy in the 19905. 1992. Finnish Forestry Association, Helsinki. 26 pp. 115 Timber production and the forest industry Rikare skog: 90 -talets kunskaper om naturvärd och ekologi. (Richer forest: the knowledge of nature protection and ecology in the 905.) 1990. Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 133 pp. (In Swedish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1987. Multiple use and the Forest 2000 Programme. Scandinavian Forest Economics 29: 39^17. Scandinavia: forestry and the wood production industry. 1993. World Forest Center, Portland. 38 pp. Scandinavian forestry: the forest should be used wisely - not used up. 1994. Swedish Pulp and Paper Association/Svensk Skog/Norwegian Pulp and Paper Associa tion/The Norwegian Forest Owners' Federation/Finnish Forestry Industries Federation/Finnish Forestry Association/Nordic Timber Council. 27 pp. A search for sustainable forestry: the Swedish view. 1994. Swedish Pulp and Paper Association, Stockholm. 59 pp. Selby, A. 1994. Primary sector policies and rural development in Finland. 1994. In: Gilg, A.W. (ed.). Progress in rural policy and planning. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, p. 157-176. Seppälä, H. 1993. Metsäteollisuus 2010: arvio Suomen metsäteollisuudesta ja sen puunkäytöstä. (Forest industry 2010: a scenario for Finnish forest industry and utilization of timber resources.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 454. 54 pp. (In Finnish.) Seppälä, R. 1994. Metsäsektoriko uuden nousun veturi? (Forest sector: an engine for a new economic boom?) In: Snellman, V. (ed.). Tutkimus metsien kes tävyyden ja käytön perustana. (Research as a basis for sustainability and utili zation of forests.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 523: 97-106. (In Finnish.) Skogspolitiken inför 2000 -talet. (Forest policy for the 21st century.) 1992. Jord bruksdepartementet, Statens offentliga utredningar, SOU 1992:79. 343 pp. (In Swedish.) Skogsstatistisk ärsbok 1994. (Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 1994.) 1994. National Board of Forestry, Jönköping. 349 pp. (Charts and summary in English.) Snorsson, A. 1992. Iceland. In: The forest resources of the temperate zones: the UN ECE/FAO 1990 forest resource assessment. Volume I. General forest resource information. United Nations, New York. p. 184-187. Solbraa, K. 1989. Flersidig skogbruk. Summary: Multiple use in forestry. Norsk institutt for skogforskning, Rapport 7. 35 pp. Solbraa, K. & Gronvold, S. 1989. Skogokologi og flersidig skogbruk 111. Del. B. Skoglige tilpasninger, friluftsliv og konsekvensvurderinger. Summary: Silvi cultural adaptations, open air recreation, and consequence evaluation. Norsk institutt for skogforskning, Rapport 14. 54 pp. Strategy for sustainable development: proposals for a Swedish programme. 1993. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, Solna. 280 pp. Strategy for sustainable forest management. 1994. Ministry of the Environment/The National Forest and Nature Agency, Copenhagen. 65 pp. Suomen metsäluonnon monimuotoisuuden turvaaminen. (Protecting the diversity of Finnish forest nature.) 1994. Ympäristöministeriö, Alueiden käytön osasto. 83 pp. (In Finnish.) 116 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Suomi: eurooppalainen maaseutumaa. (Finland: a rural country in Europe). 1993. Valtioneuvoston maaseutupoliittinen selonteko eduskunnalle, Helsinki. 41 pp. (In Finnish.) Svanborg, A. 1994. Äntligen har skogkonjunkturen vänt. (The forest trade conditions have finally changed.) In: Skogsäret 1993-94. (Forest year 1993-94.) 1994. Skogsägarnas Riksförbund, Stockholm, p. 38-42. (In Swedish.) Sweden's new forest policy. 1994. The National Board of Forestry, Jönköping. 13 pp. Thörnqvist, T. 1994. Mer trä i byggandet. (More wood in building.) In: Skogsäret 1993-94. (Forest year 1993-94.) 1994. Skogsägarnas Riksförbund, Stock holm. p. 52-56. (In Swedish.) Toropainen, M. 1994. Voiko metsäsektori nostaa kansantalouden lamasta. (Can the forestry sector help the national economy out of recession?) In: Toropainen, M. & Mäkkeli, P. (eds.). Metsäsektori myllerryksessä. (Forestry sector in tur moil.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 500: 45-54. (In Finnish.) UNCED: YK:n ympäristö- ja kehityskonferenssi, Rio de Janeiro 3.-14.6.1992. (UNCED: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro 3.-14.6.1992.) Ympäristöministeriö/Ulkoasiainministeriö, Hel sinki. 239 pp. (In Finnish.) Wibe, S. 1992. Sweden. In: Wibe, S. & Jones, T. (eds.). Forests: market & interven tion failures. Five case studies. Earthscan Publications Ltd., London, p. 58- 89. Wahlström, E., Hallanaro, E.-L. & Reinikainen, T. 1993. The state of the Finnish environment. Ministry of the Environment, Helsinki. 163 pp. WWF Submission to the Commission on Sustainable Development. 1994. WWF, Gland. 34 pp. Yearbook ofNordic statistics 1994. 1994. Nordic Council of Ministers, Nord 1994:1. 431 pp. 117 Non-timber forest products and their utilization 6 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Kauko Salo 1 Abstract The economically most significant and most popular berry species in Finland, Sweden and Norway are cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), bilberry (V. myr tillus), cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) and raspberry (R . idaeus). They are primarily forest and mire species inhabiting various forest and peatland site types. Cowberry is the most important household berry in Finland and it also provides the most abundant crop. Bilberry takes first place in Sweden and Norway. The majority of the best edible mushrooms occur on dry, dryish or moist upland forests. Most of them are mycorrhizal species that accompany pine, spruce and birches. Three mushroom species: Boletus edulis, Suillus luteus and Cantharellus cibarius are considered to be the best edible mush rooms in all the Nordic countries. Also, other common wild berry species and edible mushroom species are popular. The reindeer lichen species Cladonia alpestris forms extensive carpets in the driest woodlands of the northern part of the boreal coniferous zone. The lichen is used for ornamental purposes. Lichen is mostly exported to central Europe, where the leading importers are Germany, Austria and Italy. Norway spruce (Picea abies) has been the tradi tional choice as a Christmas tree. The estimated annual consumption of Christmas trees in the Nordic countries is 6.5-7.5 million trees. Christmas trees and the ornamental foliage of numerous exotics (e.g. Abies nordmanni ana, A. procera) have a significant role in Danish forestry. Ornamental foli age consists of evergreen branchlets used for decorative purposes. In this area of forestry, Denmark is the leader in Europe. Keywords: forest products, berries, mushrooms, lichen, Christmas trees, ornamental foliage. 1 Finnish Forest Research Institute Joensuu Research Station P.0.80x 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland 118 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 6.1 An aspect of multiple-use forestry In addition to timber production, forest uses include berry picking, mush rooming, other forms of gathering, Christmas tree harvesting, gamekeeping and hunting, reindeer husbandry and cattle grazing, recreation and outdoor activities, landscape management and conservation. Forests and peatlands embody a vast amount of intangible values. A fine example of such a value is the experience of encountering a rare woodpecker next to its nesting tree or the enthralling spectacle of a whooper swan winging over a vast mire. Our ancestors knew what multiple use of forests was all about. Grazing of cattle in the woods is no longer practised. Charcoal, resin, tar and birch bark are examples of wood products no longer used very much. It was timber that people used to make their dwellings out of, and moss gathered from the forest floor was used to keep out the cold that would otherwise have crept in through the gaps in the walls. Wood was the source of heating energy as well. Two tra ditional forms of forest use still remain: picking of berries and mushrooms, and hunting. Generally speaking, berries and mushrooms are considered to be parallel or by-products provided by forests. In years when the berry and mushroom crops are plentiful, cowberry, sometimes called lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis idaea) and ceps (Boletus pinophilus) may be considered to be parallel forest products on dryish Scots pine sites in Finland. In times of poor berry or mush room crops on the same sites they are forest by-products. The monetary value per hectare of the berries and mushrooms waiting to be collected on certain sites can exceed the income to be obtained from the final cutting of the tree crop. Bounteous communities of cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) and cran berry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) have been obliterated by draining of vast areas of peatland in southern and central Finland. Instead of being reworked, failed drainage and planting areas should be allowed to return to their former paludi fied state. With time, the water and nutrient status of such peatlands will once again provide conditions suitable for cloudberry and cranberry crops to flour ish. Remedial draining and thinning of peatland sites should be directed at sites where the tree crops show good growth and where the benefits to be gained are in proportion to the expenses involved. 6.2 Rights of public access Finland and Sweden are the Nordic countries where rights of public access (in Finland the term is translated as Everyman's rights) are recognized. Den mark, Iceland and Norway have more restrictions. It means that citizens of Finland and Sweden have the right of free access to outdoor areas, where they can pick wild berries, mushrooms, wild herbs, wild flowers, fallen dry branches and cones lying on the ground. However, you are not allowed to 119 Non-timber forest products and their utilization gather logging waste nor the branches and cones of windthrown trees without the landowner's permission. Income earned from the sales of wild berries, herbs and mushrooms is tax-free in Finland, whereas income earned from the collecting of lichen is taxable. In the case of the latter, the landowner collects him/herself or rents the collecting right to an outsider. In Sweden, people have to pay taxes for all kinds of income including producing and selling honey, and picking berries and mushrooms. However, it is possible to sell up to 5,000 SEK/person without paying taxes. A new "hobby-tax" will be intro duced during spring 1993 in Sweden. The collecting of cones without a per mit is punishable under the Criminal Act either as theft or damage to prop erty. Rights of public access have also been limited by the nature conservation legislation and by certain regulations pertaining to conservation areas. In ad dition, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry in Finland is entitled to pro hibit the picking of cloudberries by non-residents and foreigners in some districts in the Province of Lapland. Also in Norway, the picking of cloudber ries by non-residents is restricted in the Nordland, Troms and Finnmark coun ties. Rights of public access is a tradition which has developed over the years. It is a kind of common usage that has its roots in the early stages of the settle ment of Finland, Norway and Sweden. They are based, on the one hand, on usufruct from time immemorial and, on the other hand, on the written law. Regulations pertaining to the rights in Sweden are set out in a law from the time of King Christian in 1442, and they were put into writing in 1608 when Karl IX ratified the law. Regulations connected to rights of public access were included in the Law of Moses over 5,000 years ago. One of these laws states: "When thou comest into thy neighbour's vineyard, then thou mayest eat grapes thy fill at thine own pleasure; but thou shalt not put any in thy vessel. When thou comest into the standing corn of thy neighbour, then thou mayest pluck the ears with thine hand; but thou shalt not move a sickle unto thy neighbour's standing corn" (Raamattu 1954). The application of rights of public access in Denmark and Iceland is very much in the spirit of the Law of Moses. In Iceland, a person may collect wild berries for eating on the spot. If you intend to pick berries to take home, you need to have the landowner's or tenant's permission. In Denmark, there are re strictions on the recreational use of forests owned by private persons. Citizens are allowed to walk only along paths and the landowner is entitled to prohibit the picking of wild berries and mushrooms - and yet landowners there do not themselves organize the picking of berries and mushrooms. State-owned for ests allow the collecting of mushrooms for private consumption but not for sale (Hallgrimsson 1990). In many other countries in Europe, the picking of berries and mushrooms is subject to license. In France, for example, the state forestry authority sells 120 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries bilberry picking licenses in the mountain regions for those state forests where sufficient amounts of berries have been observed. According to calculations made in France, the amount of money collected from the selling of bilberry picking licenses corresponds to almost a half of the total income obtained from bilberry forests. Rights of public access in the Nordic countries also apply to foreigners. It is common that people from Poland and the Baltic states go to northern Swe den and Finland for a month or two to pick berries for sale. The constantly in creasing volume of tourism and outdoor activities will eventually force the Nordic countries to review their policies. Some of the fundamental issues will be the following: Will free access to move about outdoors and pick berries and mushrooms in forests and on mires without a need for the landowner's permis sion be retained? Will legislative measures be undertaken or will separate picking licenses be issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry to reg- Figure 6.1 Vegetation zones of Fennoscandia. The Arctic-Alpine vegetation zone has been shadowed, mainly according to Ahti et ai. (1964,1968). 121 Non-timber forest products and their utilization ulate entry to private forest estates? Will we find ourselves purchasing picking licenses for state-owned forests and peatlands? 6.3 Occurrence of wild berries in the Nordic countries Forest berries and site types The species of wild berries presented in this publication are primarily forest and mire species inhabiting various forest and peatland site types, fells. Table 6.1 European, North American and scientific names of some edible wild berries. *Eco nomically most important berries in the Nordic countries. **Here the English name is a com mon name of numerous species and hybrids of Rubus fruticosus. Europe North America (when different) Scientific name Alpine bearberry Arctostaphylos alpinus Arctic bramble Rubus arcticus Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi "Bear bramble"** Rubus fruticosus Bilberry* Blueberry Vaccinium myrtillus Bird cherry Prunus padus Blackthorn R spinosa Bog bilberry Bog blueberry Vaccinium uliginosum Cloudberry* Rubus chamaemorus Cowberry* Lingonberry Vaccinium vitis-idaea Granberry V. oxycoccos Crownberry Empetrum nigrum Juniper Juniperus communis Mountain crowberry Empetrum hermaphoroditum Raspberry* Rubus idaeus Roses Rosa canina, R. tomentosa, R. dumaiis, R. rugosa, R. majalis Rowanberry Sorbus aucuparia Sea buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides Small cranberry Vaccinium microcarpum Stone bramble Rubus saxatilis Wild cherry Prunus avium Wild strawberry Fragaria vesca 122 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries peripheral areas around cultivations, and shorelines within the boreal vegeta tion zone of the Fennoscandia region (Finland, Sweden, Norway) (Figure 6.1). The names given to some berry bearing dwarf shrubs differ in Europe and North America ( Table 6.1). This is partly because they refer to different spe cies. For instance, the European bilberry is Vaccinium myrtillus, whereas the North American blueberry is V. corymbosus and V. angustifolium. North American names for the European bilberry and cowberry are widely used in the trade in Nordic regions. Finland has some fifty indigenous berry species and of these 37 are edible. Sixteen species are picked for human consumption ( Table 6.2); these include a few (e.g. bog bilberry ( Vaccinium uliginosum ), crowberry (Empetrum ni grum), mountain crowberry (E. hermaphroditum), stone bramble (Rubus sax atilis) and alpine bearberry (Arctostaphylos alpinus)) that have found very little use in the recent past. According to Eriksson et al. (1979), Sweden has at least 35 edible berry species and Norway has 30 indigenous berry species whose berries and fruits are fit for human consumption (Valset et al. 1976). The economically most significant and most popular berry species in Fin land, Sweden and Norway are cowberry, bilberry, cloudberry and raspberry. Cowberry (Figures 6.2 and 6.3) is the most important household berry in Fin land and it also provides the most abundant crop. Bilberry takes first place in Sweden and Norway; according to Kardell (1980), the average annual bilberry crop in Sweden is larger than that of cowberry. In Norway, cloudberry comes second after bilberry with cowberry taking third place (Valset et al. 1976). The aforementioned berry species are common, but there is large variation between their occurrence in the different parts of the countries. The southern, central and northern boreal zones of Finland and Sweden are typified by the presence of a contiguous belt of coniferous forest dominated by Norway spruce (Picea abies) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris). The common and economically most significant wild berries are to be found in these conif erous forests interspersed with two birches (Betula pendula and B.pubescens). Cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) grows in pine dominated dry and dryish upland forests and occasionally in upland forests on moist soils. Bilberry (V. myrtillus) is at its most typical in spruce dominated moist upland forests; it is also to be found in dryish upland forests composed of pine and birch in addi tion to spruce. Grovelike upland forests may also contain bilberry. According to the results of the third national forest inventory conducted in Finland (1951 1953), half of Finland's forest area was covered by cowberry and bilberry at the field layer level. Crowberries (Empetrum nigrum and E. hermaphroditum) are a common field layer species in dry and dryish upland pine forests and in the fells of the coniferous zone. Moist and grovelike upland sites are typically populated by raspberry (Rubus idaeus), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) and stone bramble (Ru bus saxatilis). Along with crowberries, these have not been very popular in the 123 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Table 6.2 The distribution of edible berries on different site types and in different parts of Finland (Luonnonmarjaopas 1988). Berry species Site type Distribution c o s 0 O) 0 > 0 c £ Ö -C c/5 co 0 1 0 O 3 Q. CO CO Q) 'I 0 C CL c/> O) o -O c 'cg c 3 O S ■O c JS c Li. c 0 £ o CO "D C 03 C Ll I c 0 O •D C JO Q. <0 C~! to £ 3 a) 3 x: .£ D co o * w H O -o c JS Q. CO _l I- O \- > H- 2 Cowberry 1 Vaccinium vitis-idaea Bilberry 1 Vaccinium myrtillus Cloudberry 1 Rubus chamaemorus Raspberry 2 Rubus idaeus Cranberries 2 Vaccinium oxycoccus o C c O V. microcarpum O c C c Arctic bramble 2 Rubus arcticus Crowberries Empetrum nigrum E. hermaphroditum Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Sea buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides 3 Bog bilberry Vaccinium ugilinosum Wild strawberry Fragaria vesca Juniper Juniperus communis Stone bramble Rubus saxatilis Black bearberry Arctostaphylos alpina 1 Economically most important berries in Finland. 2 Second economically most important groups of berries. Site types have changed and yields have been decreased since the early 1930s. 3 Sea buckthorn occurs only on the islands and the shoreline of Gulf of Bothnia and on the Aland Islands. w o > Common C = Common CT - Calluna Type s . _ _ _ , VT = Vaccinium Type i Less Common O = Occasional MT = Myrtillus Type ) Rare U = Uncommon OMT = Oxalis-Myrtillus Type 124 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Nordic countries in the recent past. There are years when some tens of tons of rowan berries and crowberries will be bought for industrial consumption in Finland. Juniper ( Juniperus communis) is common in moist and grovelike up land forests and along the coast. Juniper berries are mainly used to spice food and beverages. Extensive mountain areas in eastern Norway, western Sweden and in Finn ish Lapland belong to the Arctic-Alpine cold vegetation zone that encompass es the tundra north of the timber line and the alpine parts above the timber line in mountainous areas (Figure 6.1). The edible wild berries of the fell country are bilberry, crowberry, bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum ) and alpine bear berry (Arctostaphylos a I pin us), but only minor amounts of these are picked in the fells of Finland, Sweden and Norway. Boreal zones with their oceanic birch forests are to be found along the coast of Norway north of Trondheim. The hemiboreal zone of Fennoscandia is limited to the coastal region of southern Norway, most of southern Sweden and only a narrow strip of southern Finland. This zone includes pine and spruce forests and forests composed of broadleaved species; e.g. oak-hazel and elm-ash forests (Kalliola 1973). In these forests, cowberry occurs only in the more barren parts and even bilberry is limited to patches in moist upland forests. The western part of Denmark and the western coast of southern Norway belong to the central European Atlantic zone while eastern Denmark and the southernmost western coast of Sweden belong to the sub-Atlantic zone. Both of these zones are outside the natural area of distribution of spruce and, as an indigenous part of the flora, even pine occurs only rarely. This being the case, the wild berries of the Atlantic and sub-Atlantic zones are rare, and it may be that they are to be encountered only in plantations of conifers. The other common berry species of Sweden and Norway include cranber ry, small cranberry, crowberry, bog bilberry, rowan, juniper, wild strawberry, and arctic bramble. In Sweden, and especially in Norway, local popularity is enjoyed by the species Rubus plicatus , R. nessensis znAß.fissus (Valset et al. 1976). This group of berries includes several perennial, dense, sharp-thorned bush species and hybrids. The only species indigenous to Finland, R. plicatus and R. pruinosus, are rare and the latter is protected in the Aland Islands (Ing manson & Holmberg 1988). In some parts of southern Sweden, southern Norway and Denmark, black thorn (Prunus spinosa) and wild cherry {P. avium) are picked as well as culti vated in gardens. Blackthorn occurs as a rare species in southwestern Finland and in the Aland Islands (Hämet-Ahti et al. 1986). The berries of bird cherry (P. padus ), common in Sweden, Norway and Denmark but rare in the southern parts of Finland, have been traditionally used to make fruit drinks, wines and liqueurs (Ingmanson & Holmberg 1988). Due to the rarity of the species in Finland, its berries have not found household use. In the Nordic countries there are several species of roses (Rosa canina, R. tomentosa, R. dumalis, R. majalis, 125 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Figures 6.2 and 6.3 Cowberry is in bloom and makes berries in the dry and dryish heath forest sites. The best yields of cowberry can be 100-200 kg/ha in very good sites but normally the average yields are 5-20 kg/ha in large heath forest areas. Photos: Kauko Salo (flowers) and Erkki Oksanen (berries). 126 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries R. rugosa) that find a lot of local use. Rose berries have especially been used in the form of purees and soups (Valset et al. 1976, Ingmanson & Holmberg 1988). The Iceland of today is a barren land. Only 1 % of the country's land area, 1,250 km 2 , is covered by woodland with downy birch (Betula pubescens) as the dominant species. The mean height of the trees (80.8 % of all) is under 2 metres. The native Icelandic woodlands are shrubby (Blöndal 1993). The other native tree species are willows (Salix phylicifolia, S. lanata), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia ) and aspen (Populus tremula). In Iceland there are 10 indigenous plant species that produce berries. Most of the species are found in woodlands but none of them is restricted to such sites. The most common berries are crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), mountain crowberry (E. hermaphroditum), bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), bilber ry (V. myrtillus) and stone bramble (Rubus saxatilis). Other less abundant spe cies are wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia ), one of the few native tree species, juniper (Juniperus communis) and bearberry (Arc tostaphylos uva-ursi) (Hallgrimsson 1990). Peatland berries In terms of its area of peatland, Finland is the world leader. The total peatland area was originally about 10.4 million hectares (or one third of the country's entire land area). At present the total area drained for forestry and agricultural purposes is about 6 million hectares with part of this area classified as being paludified mineral soil forest. The drained area corresponds to one quarter of Finland's forest area (Päivänen 1990). Sweden's area of peatland (peat depth 30 cm or more) amounts to 6.3 mil lion hectares (Hänell 1990). The peatland area in Norway is 3 million hectares, of which 1.1 million hectares are either cultivated for agricultural purposes or lie above the timberline (Braekke 1990). Iceland's peatland area is 1 million hectares, and that of Denmark is 0.6 million hectares (Kivinen & Pakarinen 1980). The two wild berry species typical to virgin pine mires and bogs in Fin land, Sweden and Norway are cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) (Figure 6.4) and bog bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum)', both of these also grow well on spruce mires. Small cranberry (V. microcarpum), crowberry (Empetrum ni grum) and mountain crowberry (E. hermaphroditum) are typical of pine bogs. Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccos) grows on treeless bogs. Cowberry {Vac cinium vitis-idaea) and bilberry (V. myrtillus) are typical forest berries, but they also grow and produce good yields on transitional drained peatlands and in old peat-based forests. A peat substrate is also suitable for berry-producing individuals of raspberry (Rubus idaeus) on logged spruce mire sites and for arctic bramble (R . arcticus), an increasingly rare species, on meadows and in 127 Non-timber forest products and their utilization spruce bogs that are regularly flooded (Salo 1988 a). In Denmark and Iceland, these mire berry species are rare and have no economic significance. 6.4 Yields of the most important wild berries The overall crops of wild forest and peatland berries in Sweden have been studied by Eriksson et al. (1979) and Kardell and Carlsson (1982). Corre sponding calculations for Finland have been made by Raatikainen et al. (1988) and Salo (1991 a). The average yield of bilberry in Sweden for the years 1975-1977 was 255 million kilos and it varied within the range of 219- 307 million kilos. The normal bilberry crop in Finland has been calculated to be 150-200 million kilos. Sweden's average cowberry crop for the above years was calculated to have been 155 million kilos with a variation of 142 168 million kilos. Finland's cowberry crop for a normal year is about 200 mil lion kilos; in exceptionally good years, as in 1988 and 1989, the crop can rise to 500 million kilos. The cloudberry crop in Sweden for the years 1978-1980 was reckoned to average 75.7 million kilos. In 1979, the crop was 93 million kilos. Finland's cloudberry crop is estimated to vary within the range of 25-50 million kilos. The main part of the annual crop is collected from the mires of Lapland and occasionally from southeast Finland. Southern and central Finland have an av erage of only three good cloudberry crops per decade. Cloudberry crop fail ures are known to be less frequent in northern Finland (Salo 1991 a). The main crop of Sweden's foremost household berries (cowberry, bilber ry, cloudberry) has been calculated to be 485 million kilos. The corresponding figure for Finland for an average year is 450 million kilos. Thus, the two coun tries do not greatly differ from one another on the average. The biggest differ ence appears to be in the size of the cowberry crops; Finland's overall crop can occasionally rise to a level which is double (500 million kilos) the normal year's crop. The biological crop of cowberry, bilberry and cloudberry was about 600 million kilos in 1988. This means that the cowberry and cloudberry crops were abundant and bilberry crop above average (Salo 1991 a). The annual crops of cranberry have declined as a consequence of draining of peatlands during the past couple of decades; in Finland they are estimated to be on average 20-30 million kilos. According to Kardell and Carlsson (1982), Sweden's cranberry crops in 1978-1980 averaged 20.8 million kilos. The annual crops of crowberries, raspberry, rowan and bog bilberry amount to some tens of millions of kilos. Sweden's overall raspberry crop var ied between 15-20 million kilos per year during the period 1974—1977 (Eriks son et al. 1979). The combined crop of all edible wild berries in Finland is estimated to amount to 500 million kilos in poor years and to 1,000 million ki los in a good year such as 1988 (Salo 1991 a). In Sweden, the overall crop of wild berries is probably about 500 million kilos per year (Eriksson et al. 1979). 128 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 6.4 Cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) is economically most valuable berry species to people in the northern parts of Finland, Sweden and Norway. Photo: Juha-Pekka Hotanen. The coverage of bilberry plants on the sample plots in Sweden during the period 1974-1977 was on average 25 % in stands older than 70 years of age. In younger stands the coverage varied within the range of 5-20 %. During the said period, the average coverage of cowberry on sample plots representing forests of varying ages from 10-160 years was 4—B % (Eriksson et al. 1979). In Swedish forests, bilberry forms contiguous communities while cowberry occurs in a more patchlike manner on the forest floor. According to Eriksson et al. (1979), the average crops of bilberry per hec tare of forest land in 1975-1977 fell within the range of 9.3-13.2 kilos. The study also indicates that forests in northern Sweden produce 70-75 % of the country's entire bilberry crop. The cowberry crops for the above period aver aged 6.1-7.1 kg/ha. Northern Sweden accounts for 70-75 % of Sweden's cow berry crop. The average cloudberry yield for the period 1975-1977 was almost 20 million kilos. The biggest yields and highest mean coverages of cowberry on mineral soils are to be found in pine forests and the lowest in deciduous forests. The same relationship applies to mires, except for a lower coverage on treeless bogs. Clearcut areas on mineral soils show a somewhat higher relative cover age (Kardell & Carlsson 1982). Sweden's cloudberry production during the period 1978-1980 was 75.7 million kilos (fresh weight). The mean yield for forest land was 13.5 kg/ha, and 18.4 kg/ha for mires. In the same period, the cranberry crop was 20.8 mil- 129 Non-timber forest products and their utilization lion kilos; of this, 90 % originated from mires. The average annual production was 5.0 kg/ha. The corresponding figure for forest land (paludified forest land) was 2.2 kg/ha (Kardell & Carlsson 1982). The average cowberry crop was 8.0 kilos per hectare of forest land in cen tral Finland. Berry vegetation coverage on forest land averaged 5.8 %. The biggest crops were recorded on VT (Vaccinium Type) and CT (Caltuna Type) site types, on which the average mean crops were 24—27 kg/ha. About three quarters of the cowberry crop was estimated to occur in amounts worth pick ing. The differences between districts were considerable. The average bilberry coverage on forestry land was 11.3 % and the average crop was 4.3 kg/ha; the years included in the study were poorer than average in terms of the amount of bilberry. According to the same study, crowberry yields on mineral soil forests averaged 1.5 kg/ha, bog bilberry 0,7 kg/ha (2.0 kg on mires), raspberry 0.2 kg/ ha, and stone bramble 0.017 kg/ha. Calculations for different mire and bog types gave a cranberry average of 1.3 kg/ha and 0.9 kg/ha for cloudberry (Raa tikainen et ai. 1984). The highest average cowberry crop for the years 1981-1984 in the districts of Nurmes and Lieksa (both with vast areas of forest and peatland), as recorded on the permanent sample plots (berry sample plot size 10 m 2) laid out for Na tional Forest Inventory (NFI) purposes, was 5.4 kg/ha on dryish upland sites (EVT: Empetrum-Vaccinium Type) while the average bilberry crop on moist upland sites (VMT: Vaccinium-Myrtillus Type) was 23.4 kg/ha. Systematic random sampling on forest land always includes sample plots with no cowber ry present or present but sterile. This is why the average crops remain low when such crops are compared to crops produced by cowberry sites with good yields (Salo 1991 a). The bilberry crops in a few districts in eastern Finland were inventoried in 1983 by means of 120 sample plots located on moist and dryish upland sites. The sample plots were 10 m 2 in size and they were located on sites known to be good for bilberry. The average bilberry crop for the year was found to be 94 kg/ha. On the best sites, the crop had been over 160 kg/ha. The same sample plots also yielded an average of 46 kg/ha of cowberries. The results obtained showed that average cowberry and bilberry crops can be fairly high if the sam ple plots are placed on sites where there is an abundance of fertile berry vege tation (Salo 1991 a). Even in the best years, the crops of cloudberry in Finland are only a few tens of kilos for vast contiguous areas. On more compact areas, however, pop ulated by female plants, the crop per hectare can rise to several hundreds of kilos (Huttunen 1978, Kortesharju et al. 1978, Kortesharju 1984, 1988, Vei jalainen 1979). According to Ruuhijärvi (1974), the cranberry crop in southern Finland's mires and bogs varies within the range of 50-150 kg/ha, whereas Huttunen (1978) reports the cranberry crops on northern Finland mire and bog types to be in the region of 13—42 kg/ha. On vast mire areas, the average crops per hec tare in good years are probably in the region of 20-40 kilos. 130 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Factors influencing berry crops The following is a list of the foremost factors influencing berry crops in cer tain forested areas of Finland (e.g. Nousiainen 1983, Salo 1982, 1988 a, 1991 a); 1) The preceding growing season's conditions influence the physiological state of berry shrubs. Temperature and moisture influence the nutritional state of the shoots in autumn when the flower primordia are differenti ated. 2) The number of flower primordia increases at the beginning of the grow ing season. 3) Thickness of snow blanket; if it is thin, the shoots stick out above the snow and the flower buds freeze. 4) Spring frosts at a time when the berry shrubs are at the bud and flowering stage; summer frosts when the berries are still green. 5) Successful pollination. All economically important berries are insect-pol linated. Thus, the weather conditions should be congenial for insects dur ing the flowering stage. 6) There should be an abundance of insect pollinators during the flowering stage; e.g. the duration of bilberry flowering is of significance for the suc cess of pollination. 7) Heavy rains and hail showers during the flowering stage can result in reduced crops, for instance of cloudberry. 8) A lengthy period of no rain while the berries are still green can result in reduced berry size or shedding of immature berries by the plant. 9) Local reductions in crops can be caused by certain insects (e.g. cloudber ry weevil, certain mushroom diseases, grouse). 10) The final crop is influenced by the density of berries on the shoots and the size of the berries. 11) Forest site types and tree species composition, bushes and the field layer. 12) Stand age (development class) influences the occurrence of berry shrubs. 13) The canopy cover of trees influences berry fertility. Silvicultural measures constitute an important category of their own: 14) clearcutting, 15) ploughing and 16) scarifying significantly reduce berry crops. Bilberry, a shade seeking species, does not tolerate clearcutting, nor the desiccating impact of direct sunlight. Its thin, wax-free leaves dry up and ber ries disappear as of the year after clearcutting. Cowberry often flourishes on clearcut sites as a consequence of increased light and temperature; on dry and dryish upland sites it can produce good crops as long as the cowberry vegeta tion is not broken up in connection with logging. Cowberry shrubs on clearcut moist upland sites are invigorated. In addition to wavy hair-grass (.Deschamp sia flexuosa), such sites are taken over by dense growths of sprouts of hard- 131 Non-timber forest products and their utilization wood species; this puts an end to the supply of light to the berry shrubs, and berry production falls. When the hardwood sprouts are cleared away, the berry shrubs become covered by the cut-down trees, and picking of berries becomes difficult (Salo 1991 a). 17) Draining and 18) fertilization have a debilitating effect on cloudberry and cranberry crops. Drainage has often encouraged the growth of cloudberry on the upturned piles of peat and along the edges of ditches. The prerequisite to this is that there are communities of female plants within the drainage area as they propagate via underground rhizomes. Cloudberry on drained and fer tilized peatland can produce higher crop volumes than before draining. This situation often lasts for several years on peatlands in southern and central Fin land. In northern Finland, a drained peatland site can be productive even 40 years after being drained (Numminen 1979). Drainage of peatlands has led to a situation in which productive strains of cranberry disappear as early as the first and second post-drainage year follow ing a fall in the groundwater level. The peak drainage years are now behind us, but the challenges that await peatland forestry during the next few decades lie in the thinning of peatland forests and remedial drainage. Failed drainage areas are not worth the trouble of being redrained; they should be left to revert to their former state. With the passing of time, the original mire water state will re-establish itself and cloudberry and cranberry will become productive again (Salo 1991 a). What proportion of the wild berries do we actually pick? The picking of wild berries is of great economic significance to the regions of Kainuu and Lapland in Finland. It has been estimated that the value of all edi ble wild berries in a normal crop year amounts to about 400 million FIM (80 million US $). In a normal crop year, the yield of wild berries (cowberry, bil berry, cloudberry) is 450 million kilos. In recent years, Finns have actually picked 40 million kilos; i.e. 9-10 % of the total amount. The year 1991 was a good crop year, and the amount of economically significant berries picked was estimated to have amounted to 50 million kilos (Salo 1991 b). According to the results of a questionnaire-study conducted in Sweden (1,000 questionnaire sheets were sent to persons 16-74 years of age), the Swedes picked 78 million litres (about 47 million kilos) of bilberries, cowber ries, cloudberries and raspberries in 1977; this corresponded to 7 % of the year's overall crop. On average, Swedes picked 13 litres (or 7.8 kilos) per per son (Table 6.3). Bilberry is Sweden's most popular berry (picked by 47 % of the population); cowberries were picked by 38 % of the population (Hultman 1983). According to the results of studies conducted at district level in Finland (the districts of Suomussalmi, Lieksa, Nurmes and Valtimo), cowberries and bilberries were picked by 70-90 % of the local people. The differences in the popularity of cowberry and bilberry were small (Salo 1985). Women were 132 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries slightly more active than men. In Sweden, the central and northern part of the country (Norrland, Svealand) were the leading areas; the lowest picking fig ures were obtained for densely populated areas in Götaland around Gothen burg and Malmö in southern Sweden (Hultman 1983). According to a paper published by the Department for the Environment, about 56 % of the population of Norway picked berries for their own use, of those 44 % picked bilberries, and 43 % picked lingonberries. About half as many picked raspberries and cloudberries. It is assumed that, in 1979, the pick ing of wild berries amounted to (in total) between 20 and 35 million kilos. Of these, about 40 % were lingonberries, 30 % bilberries and 25 % raspberries and cloudberries. Based on the actual prices in 1984 in Norway, the value of wild berries picked amounted to at least 900 million NOK (Friluftsliv 1985). Several district-level investigations have been conducted in Finland to find out the berry picking activeness of people and the amounts of wild berries picked per person. Kainuu (in eastern central Finland) is renowned for its abundance of wild berries, and the per capita figures there are very high. The highest average wild berry amount for 1983 was 56.4 kg/person and it was achieved in the district of Suomussalmi (Salo 1985). The corresponding figure for 1988 was 61.9 kg/person, this time in the district of Kuhmo (Kujala et ai. 1989 a). The wild berries that are picked are cowberry, bilberry, cloudberry, rasp berry, rowan berry and cranberries. Cowberry is the most important of these; it accounted for 60 % of the total amount picked at Suomussalmi in 1983 (Salo 1985). Table 6.3 shows the amounts of berries picked in different years in Fin land and Sweden. The sampling applied in these investigations was directed at the adult population - persons 16(18)-70(74) years of age. According to the figures presented in the table, the amounts of berries picked per person varied a lot depending on the year. There does not appear to be great differences be tween Finland and Sweden in terms of berry picking activeness. Most people pick berries for private consumption. It is a highly appreciat ed activity for the whole family for a few days a year. In Sweden and Finland, different berry products are common on the food menu, and are still an impor tant source of vitamins during the hard, dark winter period. Jam cooking is a traditional activity, too. There is a market for a range of tools for picking and processing different wild berries. Berry picking for sale is organized in a more commercial way, with a chain of buyers and sellers in the countryside set up especially during the berry picking period. According to Salo (1985), the people of Suomussalmi are the best at mak ing use of their berry crops in regard to the amounts of berries sold; the average amount of cowberries sold per inhabitant in 1983 was 24.6 kilos. This amount ed to 73.7 % of the amount picked. In 1983, the adult population of Suomus salmi picked, on the average, 22.2 kilos of cowberries (and 10 kilos of bilberries) per person per trip, and those under 18 years of age picked an aver age of 7.8 kilos of cowberries and a few kilos of bilberries. The average time spent picking berries on a cowberry trip, including getting there and back and 133 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Table 6.3 Amounts of wild berries picked in some towns and districts in Finland and Sweden. The amounts of berries reported in litres in Raatikainen's and in the Swedish studies have been converted into kilos by multiplying with 0.6. breaks, was 5 hours and 45 minutes. Those that made 9 hour picking trips clearly picked more cowberries than the others. Commercial picking of wild berries fits best in with the daily work routine of those working in agriculture and forestry. They can pick berries in between their morning and evening chores, and men have more time in the autumn once hay making and other harvesting jobs are done. The amount of picking by men appears to increase along with an increase in the distance to the picking site and an increase in the inaccessibility of the site. Especially in Suomussalmi, Picking year Study object Picking activity, % Amount picked per person, kg Source 1977 Swedish population 54 7.8 Hultman (1983) 1977 Ätvidaberg 73 13.8 Kardell (1979) 1977 Pihtipudas 94 To Ö CO Raatikainen (1978) 1977 Pihtipudas 92 6.7 2 Raatikainen and Raatikainen (1983) 1978 Lavia 85 1 752 20,7 Rossi et ai. (1984) 1978 Mänttä CM "3" h- 7- CO 7.3 Rossi et ai. (1984) 1979 Enonkoski CM CD "Ö) CO 22.0 Rossi et ai. (1984) 1979 Konnevesi 80 1 772 9.8 Rossi et ai. (1984) 1079 Gislaved 79 15.0 Kardell and Johansson (1982) 1981 Ilomantsi 72 1 862 22.8 Rossi et ai. (1984) 1982 Joensuu 73 3.2 Salo (1984) 1982 Seinäjoki 64 2.6 Salo (1984) 1982 Nurmes 19.9 Salo (1985) 1983 Nurmes 76 3 31.8 Salo (1985) 1982 Valtimo 14.5 Salo (1985) 1983 Valtimo CO CD CO 23.2 Salo (1985) 1982 Suomussalmi 49.9 Salo (1985) 1983 Suomussalmi 92 3 56.4 Salo (1985) 1987 Suomussalmi 87 29.8 Kujala et ai (1989) 1988 Suomussalmi 93 54.2 Kujala et ai. (1989) 1987 Kuhmo 90 33.0 Kujala et ai. (1989) 1988 Kuhmo 81 61.9 Kujala et ai. (1989) 1 cowberries, 2 bilberries, 3 picking activity in 1983 134 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries forest workers pick a lot of cowberries and bilberries during breaks on long trips to work and they also know the best places to pick. These people were also the most prominent in selling cowberries and bilberries to shopkeepers (Salo 1985). The picking of wild berries and edible mushrooms for sale is more like work to the rural population than it is for townspeople. The tax-free income obtained from selling what one has picked is of considerable importance in the purchasing of services and goods. Picking berries and mushrooms is an enjoy able pastime for people from urban areas. It provides them with exercise and the opportunity to pick berries and mushrooms for their personal consumption and even for relatives and friends (Salo 1984). Recent years have seen the introduction of national berry picking compe titions in Finland; 1,869 participants were involved in 1989. The minimum amount of picked wild berries in the competition was 100 kilos. Most of the leading competitors were from Kainuu. The winner reached a total of 4,743 ki los of wild berries and fourth place went to a person who had collected 3,622 kilos. The tax-free income per year from picking can rise to FIM. Picking berries can be hard work, fuel is expensive and there are plenty of indirect costs involved before the buckets of berries have been delivered to the customer (Salo 1992). In Finland, the value of the wild berry and edible mushroom harvest has corresponded to % of the value of timber production during the past few years. It was at its highest in 1976 (4.5 %) and at its lowest in 1974 when it was 2.2 % (Saastamoinen 1983). In the years 1982-1983, the relative value of the wild berry harvest in the districts of Suomussalmi and Nurmes correspond ed to 10 % of the value of wood production. This is a high figure (for mush rooms the corresponding figure was 1 %). In the districts of Lieksa and Valtimo, the value of the berry harvest is above average according to earlier studies covering the whole of Finland (Salo 1985). 6.5 Edible mushroom species in the Nordic countries History Of the Nordic countries, Finland and Sweden have a tradition of mushrooms being included in the staple diet of the population. Norway, Denmark and Ice land are lesser users of mushrooms. This is supported by the observation by Hoeg (1974) that there is no evidence to indicate that mushrooms might have been used in Norway as food by people in older times, not even in times of famine. As a typical example of the traditional attitude in the matter, he quotes a man in Sandsvär (near Kongsberg) as having said on seeing a summer tourist preparing and eating a meal of Cantharellus cibarius in 1935: "Isn't that just what I've always said; eating mushrooms is only for upper class people and 135 Non-timber forest products and their utilization cows" (translated from a Norwegian dialect by Lars Helge Frivold). Hoeg also mentions that Elaphomyces spp. was used for strengthening the sexual desire of cows; it was also sometimes eaten by people for the same purpose. But times have changed in Norway as well, and today's Norwegians are showing increasing interest in mushrooming - and not only in the species Cantharellus cibarius and Hydnum repandum (Hoiland & Ryvarden 1984). One of the oldest stories of edible mushrooms was written by Pontoppidan (1752) in his book on the natural history of Norway. He tells that morels (Morchellaceae) are dried, and sold, and that they mainly occur in certain counties in southeast Norway (Buskerud, Hedmark) where they are sought af ter by buyers and sent to other places. He also mentions that Amanita muscaria is boiled in milk and used to catch flies, because it is very poisonous. No statistics are available on the Danes' consumption of forest mushrooms (and the same applies to Iceland). Nevertheless, Danes pick less wild mush rooms than their northern neighbours. The primary reason for this is that only 9.5 % of Denmark is forested and most of this area is privately owned. Ice land's forested area is a mere 1 %. Denmark and Iceland lack the policy of rights of public access which are customary in the other Nordic countries. It is known that the ancient Romans and Slavic nations of Europe were great appreciators of mushrooms. The Germanic peoples, on the other hand, hardly included mushrooms in their diet at all. Mushrooms were introduced to the royal court of Sweden and the homes of the aristocracy during the 1 6th and Figure 6.5 Delicious cep (Boletus edulis) is one of the most desired edible mushrooms in the Nordic countries. Very near by, there is growing another mycorrhizal species, poisonous Cort inarius sp. Photo: Kauko Salo. 136 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 17th centuries from France. However, it is only since the beginning of this cen tury that the rural population has begun to use mushrooms. A campaign for promoting the use of mushrooms was conducted in Sweden during the difficult famine years of the last century, but this was of no avail (Kardell 1980). Finns, too, failed to realize the value of mushrooms during the famine years of the 1860s. Thousands of people would have survived the famine if they had used protein-rich mushrooms. Old books contain descriptions of domestic animals and reindeer eating mushrooms (e.g. Leccinum scabrum and Boletus and Suil lus species) in the woods, but people themselves had no knowledge of mush rooms and how they might be used. Apart from the western and southwestern coastal areas and eastern and southeastern parts of the country, use of mushrooms within the borders of present-day Finland was very moderate right up to the end of the past century. The gentry in western and southwestern Finland had taken a fancy to chan terelles in particular after being introduced to these mushrooms by their Swed ish acquaintances. Finns in eastern and southeast Finland and the orthodox population of the territory ceded to the Soviet Union in the aftermath of World War II were accustomed to eating ceps (Boletus spp. (Figure 6.5), Leccinum spp., Suillus spp.) as part of their diet (the latter particularly when fasting). Early last century, the use of mushrooms in Finnish territories in the proximity of St. Petersburg (former Leningrad) was promoted by the closeness of the city and the numerous summer cottages of the aristocracy along the coast of the Gulf of Finland, as these also ensured a constant demand for mushrooms (Vuorela 1975). Mushrooms were already a part of the staple diet of the population in northern Karelia in the 1 8th century. Due to the simplicity of the use of salted mushrooms, this form of consuming mushrooms became widespread even in the impoverished backwoods of eastern Finland (Jäppinen et ai. 1985). The species favoured for salting were milk caps (Lactarius torminosus, L. trivialis, L. utilis) and occasionally species of the genus Russula (Mäyränpää 1981). Occurrence and use of the foremost edible mushrooms Finland has 2,000 mushroom species, microfungi excluded. Two hundred of these are edible mushrooms, but only some 30 species are used as food. There are 23 really poisonous mushroom species and about 30 other mushrooms suspected to be poisonous (Harmaja et ai. 1978). In july 1994, 22 mushrooms and mushroom groups were accepted as commercial edible mushrooms in Finland. A commercial edible mushroom means a mushroom species that is of val ue for the mushroom trade and is approved for trade by the National Board of Trade and Industry. Commercial mushroom species approved for trade are normally easy to recognize. They must be species not to be confused with poi sonous or inedible mushroom species (Kauppasieniopas 1988). Most of the 137 Non-timber forest products and their utilization foremost commercial mushrooms are common species with high yields which are found growing on mineral soils and favoured by Finns on autumn mush room picking trips (Salo 1984, Salo 1985). A list of the best edible mushroom species (commercial mushrooms) has also been drawn up in Sweden. Mushrooms on this list may be sold in the mar ket places, for instance. In addition, the Swedes have a list of mushrooms that can be included in mixed mushroom products (von Hofsten & Holmberg 1980). Corresponding commercial mushroom guides and lists of commercial mushrooms are lacking in the other Nordic countries. However, a range of other types of books on mushrooms is available in each of the Nordic coun tries. These books explain the distinguishing characteristics of the best mush rooms, where they grow, their distribution, and how to prepare food from them. Table 6.4 lists the Nordic countries' best edible mushrooms and their scientific names. Most of the best edible mushrooms in Finland, Sweden and Norway occur in dry, dryish or moist upland forests. Most of them are mycorrhizal species that accompany pine, spruce and the birches. Many are capable of having a mycorrhizal relationship with two or three species and are therefore to be found commonly on several kinds of site types. Examples of these include Lactarius trivialis (spruce and birches), Russula paludosa (spruce and pine) and Cantharellus cibarius (birches and occasionally spruce and pine). There are only a few saprophytic species included in the list of edible mushrooms: Scutiger ovinus, Gyromitra esculenta, Armillaria mellea coll.; these may also happen to be mycorrhizal species. Purely saprophytic species are Craterellus cornucopioides, Morchella spp., Macrolepiota procera, Lepistä nebularis and L. nuda. The most common and most popular edible mushrooms are to be found among ceps, milk caps, Russula species and Cantharellus cibarius and groups close to them. Three mushroom species (Boletus edulis, Suillus luteus and Cantharellus cibarius ) are considered to be the best edible mushrooms in all of the Nordic countries. Good edible mushrooms that inhabit conifer and mixed forests include Lactarius deterrimus, Cantharellus tubaeformis, Cra terellus cornucopioides, Hydnum repandum and Rozites caperatus', these oc cur in all the other Nordic countries except in Iceland ( Table 6.4). The choicest edible mushrooms are served fried, stewed or as soups. Drying and/or deep freezing are the usual way to preserve them. While the most common edible mushrooms in Iceland occur in virgin birch woods, the species Suillus grevillei and S. luteus are common in conifer plantations. Common edible birch wood species are Tricholoma fulvum (T. flavobrunneum ) and T. album', these are not used in the other Nordic countries (Hallgrimsson 1990). Denmark has three ceps: Boletus badius, B. erythropus and B. luridus, and these occur in hardwood (often beech) forests. Many mush room devotees like to enjoy them boiled (Albertsen et al. 1981). 138 Multiple—use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 6.4 The most important edible mushroom species in the Nordic countries and their scientific names (Hansen & Knudsen 1992). Data from Finland according to Kauppasieniopas (1988) and Korho nen (1986), Sweden (von Hofsten & Holmberg 1980), Norway (Hoiland & Ryvarden 1984, Egeland & Myhr 1988), Denmark (Knudsen 1983) and from Iceland (Hallgrimsson 1990). C = Commercial edible mushroom species, E = Good edible mushrooms. Other good edible mushrooms in Finland (EF), in Sweden (ES) and in Norway (EN). Mushroom species Finland Sweden Norway Denmark Iceland Ceps: Boletus edulis C c E E E B. pinophilus c B. badius ES E Suillus variegatus c c E S. granulatus C E S. grevillei C EN E S. luteus c C E E E Leccinum versipelie c ES E L. vulpinum c L. aurantiacum c ES EN E L. scabrum E E L. holopus E Milk caps: Lactarius trivialis and L. utilis c L. rufus c L. torminosus c E L. deterrimus c C E E L. deliciosus c C E L. volemus C E Russulas: Russula paludosa c E R. aeruginea EF S E R. claroflava c E R. decolorans c ES E R. Integra C R. vinosa c R. xerampelina EF ES E E Champignons: Agaricus silvicola EF ES E E A. arvensis EF C E E A. campestris EF C E E A. bitorquis EF C E E A. silvaticus EF ES E Hygrophorus camarophyllus C C Hygrocybe punicea C Camarophyllus pratensis C E Rozites caperatus C ES E E Armillaria mellea coll. c ES E E Macroleopiota procera and M. rhacodes EF C E Lepistä nebularis EF L. nuda EF EN E Hypholoma capnoides EF Cantharellus cibarius c C E E E C. tubaeformis c C E E C. lutescens c C C. xanthopus E Craterellus cornucopioides c C E E Scutiger ovinus c ES E Hydnum repandum c C E E H. rufencens c C E Gyromitra esculenta c C Morchella esculenta and M. conica c C EN E Tricholoma tlavorirens EF C EF E T. fulvum E T. album E Calocybe gambosa C EN E Coprinus comatus ES E E Kuehneromyces mutabilis EF ES E E Pleurotus ostreatus E Total 41 39 31 26 13 139 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Albertsen et ai. (1981) have made the observation that Danish mushroom devotees (Foreningen til Svampekundskabens Fremme) tend to favour Can tharellus cibarius, Boletus edulis, Coprinus comatus, Lepistä nuda and Kueh neromyces mutabilis. For them, Russula species and milk caps are the least preferred. The use of milk caps in Denmark, Sweden and Norway is rare, and they are not salted as in Finland. Alongside chanterelles and ceps, Finland's most popular edible mushrooms include the milk caps, especially Lactarius trivialis, L. utilis, L. rufus and L. torminosus are favoured as salted mush rooms. Good wild champignons (Table 6.4) are to be found in Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark. In Finland, only cultivated champignons (Agaricus bis porus, A. hortensis) may be sold as commercial mushrooms. Finland's indige nous champignons are not common, and they are collected by persons who definitely recognize them. The novice mushroom collector can easily confuse them with the fatally poisonous destroying angel (Amanita virosa) whose gills are permanently white. The gills of champignons are reddish in juvenile indi viduals and finally they turn to blackish brown. Due to emissions of heavy metals Agaricus bitorquis and A. arvensis should not be collected from urban parks and roadsides. 6.6 Mushroom yields The first survey of mushroom yields in Finland was carried out on mineral soils and peatlands by Rautavaara (1947). A large, scientifically implemented mushroom study was carried out in Sweden together with Sweden's National Forest Survey (NFS) in 1974-1977 when 29,000 sample plots were investi gated (Kardell et al. 1980). It was not until the late 1970 s and early 1980 s that research directed at mushroom yields became more widespread in Finland (e.g. Ohenoja 1978 a, 1978 b, 1984, 1993, Ohenoja & Koistinen 1984). Mushroom yields have been investigated over smaller areas; e.g. Sjöblom et al. (1979), Vauras and Huhti nen (1980), Ohenoja and Metsänheimo (1982) and Salo (1983). After the work of Kardell et al. (1980), the practice in Sweden has been to concentrate on studying the influence of silvicultural measures on mushroom yields (e.g. Wästerlund & Ingelög 1981, Wasterlund 1982, Kardell 1984, Kardell & Eriks son 1987). The yields of mushrooms and mushroom communities on peatland sites have been studied by Lange (1948) in Denmark and Salo (1979), Saari and Salonen (1983), and Salonen and Saari (1990) in Finland. Many recent studies dealing with the structure of mushroom communities have also looked into the yields of mushrooms on different forest site types; e.g. Mehus (1986) in Norway, Jäppinen et al. (1986), Hintikka (1988) and Salo ( 1988 b, 1993 a) in Finland and Dahlberg (1991) in Sweden. 140 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries According to the results of the mushroom study included in the NFS con ducted in Sweden in 1974-1977, the total mushroom crop was estimated to have been 2,400 million kilos; of this amount, 20 % was thought to be made up of edible mushroom species. There seems to be great variation in annual crops; 89.6 % of the sample plots were void of mushrooms in 1975 while in 1974 the figure was 63.4 %. In this study, good mushroom sites were those sample plots (78 m 2) that contained 11 or more fruit bodies of mushrooms; i.e. 1,400 fruit bodies per hectare. In a good mushroom year in Sweden, this ap plied to 7-8 % of the forests. The average weight of an individual mushroom fruit body was estimated to be 50 g. It was estimated that forest land would car ry an average of 2,000 fruit bodies per hectare; i.e. one mushroom per 5 m 2. This corresponds to about 100 kilos fresh weight per hectare (Kardell et al. 1980). In the mushroom studies conducted using the permanent sample plots (100 m 2 in size) laid out in the course of the NFI (National Forest Inventory) in Fin land (for different forest and peatland site types, uneven-aged forests and drained and virgin state-owned peatlands), it has been possible to determine the mushroom species present, their ecological groups, the structure of mush room communities and the yields per hectare (Salo 1988 b, 1993 b). The biggest average mushroom yields were collected in the study years 1981-1984 from mineral soil sample plots on VMT ( Vaccinium-Myrtillus Type) site types. In 1981, the average mushroom yield (of mycorrhizal and saprophytic species) on VMT site types was 129.0 kg/hectare (fresh weight) while on EVT (Empetrum-Vaccinium Type ) site types it was 53.4 kg/hectare (fresh weight). The distribution of mushroom species and yields were influ enced by weather factors (rainfall and temperature) as well as by tree species relationships, field and ground layer vegetation, and the humidity and temper ature of the top layer of the soil. On drained sites, the quantity of mushroom species and biomass increased more in the pine mire group than in the spruce mire group. Sites drained a long time ago (i.e. now in the category of transi tional drained peatlands) and mature forests established on peatland carried higher amounts of mushrooms than recently drained peatlands or peatlands still in their virgin state (Salo 1988 b). Commercial edible mushrooms and other good edible species formed 30 % of the total mushroom crop of upland forests and drained peatland sites in Finland. In the good crop year of 1981, the theoretical overall mushroom crop was estimated to be 2,145 million kilos (Salo 1988 b). The yields (kg/ha, fresh weight) of fifteen commercial edible mushroom species and groups were established on the permanent sample plots in 1985 1986 in connection with the Bth NFI. Forested mineral soil was represented by 2,859 of the plots (300 m 2) or segments (< 300 m 2). Moist (MT: Myrtillus Type) and dryish site ( VT : Vaccinium Type) types accounted for 69.5 % of the segments on mineral soil, the grovelike site type (OMT: Oxalis-Myrtillus 141 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Type) amounted to 16.9 % while the dry site type (CT: Calluna Type) repre sented 6.2 % (Salo 1993 a). The numbers of commercial edible mushrooms on the plots and segments were counted, and the yields for each species were then expressed in terms of fresh weight/ha. The average fresh weight (g) of a single fruit body of the var ious commercial edible mushroom species was obtained from Salo's (1988 b) investigation carried out on permanent sample plots of the 7th NFI in the prov ince of North Karelia during 1981-1984. The yields of mushrooms were calculated only for segments with some mushrooms growing on them. The most common commercial edible mush room was Lactarius rufus with a mean yield of 19.3 kg/ha for 329 segments. Other common commercial species with significant yields were Lactarius uti lis (with an average yield for all segments of 12.2 kg/ha, where L. utilis has been found), Suillus variegatus (mean yield 11.4 kg/ha), Russula paludosa (mean yield 11.0 kg/ha) and Cantharellus tubaeformis (mean yield 8.3 kg/ha). C. tubaeformis was collected from 27 segments, but its fruit body grew with an average density of 2,938/ ha in mature stands on moist sites (MT). However, its yield was 14.7 kg/ha, since the average weight of a single fruit body was 5 g. Scutiger ovinus also occurred in large groups on moist sites in coniferous and mixed woods, and hence its average yield on the segments was 36.7 kg/ ha. The most common cep species was Leccinum versipelle with an average yield of 11.0 kg/ha on moist sites. The average yield of L. aurantiacum on the two grovelike sites was 34.7 kg/ha (Salo 1993 a). In the studies of both Ohenoja and Koistinen (1984) and Jäppinen et ai. (1986), the highest yields of commercial edible mushrooms occurred on dryish (VT) sites. The reason for this is that high-yielding species growing on infer tile sites have been chosen as commercial edible mushrooms. According to Salo (1993 a), Lactarius rufus, Suillus variegatus and Russula paludosa , three high-yielding commercial edible mushrooms, and known to be mycorrhizal fungi of pine, grow on moist MT site type as well as on dry CT site type and dryish VT site type. This is assuming that pines are mixed in with spruce and birch on moist sites. The plots in the Pohjanmaa-Kainuu region on VMT (Vac cinium-Myrtillus Type) site type and Peräpohjola on HMT (Hylocomium- Myrtillus Type) site type, and on the so called forest-Lapland LMT (Ledum- Myrtillus Type) site type vegetation zones are characterized by the crowns of spruces having a columnar form, an abundance of birch, and with pine at times being the dominant species on both HMT and LMT sites. How much mushrooms do we actually collect and use? One out of every three Swedes picked an average of 2.4 kg of mushrooms in 1977; this means a total of 13 million kilos of mushrooms for Sweden as a whole. According to Salo (1991 b), the amount of wild mushrooms collected in Finland in recent years has been 5 million kilos per year (i.e. 0.3 % of the 142 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries biological crop of 2,000 million kilos and 3 % of the collectable crop of edi ble mushrooms of 170 million kilos). In Norway, mushrooms were picked by 12 % of the population. Those who picked berries or mushrooms or both make, on an average, 5 field trips a year. In 1979, Norwegians picked 0.5-0.9 million kilos of mushrooms (Friluftsliv 1985). Finland's annual wild mushroom harvest during the period 1900-1965 av erages out at about 1 million kilos; the war years of 1940-1944 are exceptions as the annual harvests then amounted to nearly 17 million kilos (Kunnas 1973). The population of southern Sweden is more active in collecting mush rooms than the northerners, according to Hultman (1983). Kardell's (1979) in vestigation reveals that Atvidaberg's adult population (16-70 years of age) collected an average of 3.6 kilos of mushrooms per person in 1977. A similar sampling study conducted in the Gislaved district gave an average figure of 2.4 kilos per person of fresh edible mushrooms (Kardell & Johansson 1982). Results similar to those of Sweden have been recorded also in Finland. Ac cording to the results of a study by Pekkarinen et ai. (1980) and household questionnaires, Finns collected an average of 2.4 kilos of edible mushrooms in 1977. The consumption of mushrooms was at its highest in households in east ern Finland (the provinces of North Karelia, Kuopio and Mikkeli) and at its lowest in southern Finland. Salo (1984) observed distinct differences in the mushroom consumption of people from western and eastern parts of Finland. In the autumn of 1982 (a poor mushroom year), 28 % of the households of Seinäjoki (in western Finland) reported having collected mushrooms; the cor responding figure for the households in Joensuu (in eastern Finland) was 68 %. The average amount collected per person in Joensuu was 2.0 kilos, while that in Seinäjoki was 0.5 kilos. The per person figures of edible mushrooms collected for the rural areas of eastern Finland during the years 1982-1983 varied within the range of 2.5- 4.5 kilos. Families in eastern Finland and Kainuu preferred milk caps and mixed mushrooms, which they preserved by salting. One mushroom-collect ing family out of three deep-froze their ceps and chanterelles; desiccated mushrooms were consumed in only one household out of ten (Salo 1985). Milk caps were more popular in rural households, but chanterelles and ceps less popular, than in urban households. Households of better educated mothers collected and consumed more mushrooms and more species than the households of mothers with only basic educational backgrounds. Mushroom consumption was at its highest in families belonging to the higher social strata; this segment of the population collected ceps and chanterelles more than the others and consumed a lot of edible mushrooms either fresh or after having been deep-frozen (Pekkarinen et ai. 1980). Also the familiarity with mush rooms was more common among people belonging to the higher social strata; this is exemplified by the observance that 45 % of the persons holding mana gerial or senior positions in the district of Suomussalmi and in the province of North Karelia could recognize 6-10 mushroom species and 23 % of them rec- 143 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Figures 6.6 and 6.7 Edible mushrooms are healthy food in unpolluted natural forest habitats. Teaching of edible and poisonous mushrooms could start at young age by mother and father. Poisonous red fly agaric ( Amanita mus caria) and a cep (Lecci num scabrum) in the hands. Photo: Pekka Vuo järvi. Poisonous red fly agaric (Amanita mus caria) in the right hand and edible milk cap (Lactarius utilis) in the left hand (right). Photo: Kauko Salo. 144 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries ognized more than 10 species. Only one out of two persons from the other pro fessional groups could recognize 2-5 mushroom species (Salo 1985) (Figures 6.6 and 6.7). 6.7 Other forest products Lichens The genus of reindeer lichens Cladonia has had the greatest economic role in the Nordic countries in the lichen category. In times of famine, people have eaten certain lichen species (e.g. Iceland moss (Cetraria is!andica))\ in the case of Norway, it has been known to be a shop commodity (Kauppi 1990). Lichen have been used in folk medicine through the ages, even if this use has been based more on beliefs than on actual proof of the medicinal effect of lichens. Reindeer lichens and bearded lichens ( Alectoria spp.) have been made use of by extracting usnic acids from them, as these are useful as oint ments in the treatment of fungal infections. Over twenty years ago in Finland, reindeer lichens were still used as sourc es of usnic acid, but since then their production has ceased for economic rea sons (Kauppi 1990). In the reindeer husbandry regions of Finland, Sweden and Norway, reindeer lichens form the staple diet of reindeer. Lichen communities have been depleted in recent years because of overgrazing and their species compositions have also undergone changes. Especially the genus Stereocau lon and some other Cladonia species have increased in number in areas tram pled by reindeer (Salo 1991 a). The reindeer lichen species Cladonia alpestris is boreal and tends to avoid the most oceanic regions, hence its absence from Iceland and the outer coastal areas of Norway (Ahti 1977). It forms extensive carpets in the driest wood lands of the northern parts of the boreal coniferous zone, where the tree stands are generally composed of pine (Pinus sylvestris). Cladonia alpestris is a typ ical climax species in such woodlands, attaining dominance in the ground lay er as long as the plant community is allowed to develop without external disturbance (Kauppi 1979) (Figures 6.8 and 6.9). Large amounts of Cladonia alpestris have been collected outside the rein deer husbandry region of Finland along the river Oulunjoki, in the island of Hailuoto in the Gulf of Bothnia, and in upland forests of the Cladonia site type. The practice is to collect the lichen into wooden crates after rain or after the lichen patches have been irrigated. The income obtained from collecting li chen is taxable. Landowners collect the lichen themselves or sell collecting li censes to outsiders. The lichen Cladonia alpestris is used for ornamental purposes, especially in making wreaths. Smaller amounts are used to make li chen bands for flower arrangements and in architects' miniature models (Kauppi 1979). 145 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Figures 6.8 and 6.9 The reindeer lichen species (Cladonia alpestris) is growing in dry tree stand composed of Scots pine. The practice is to collect the lichen into wooden crates after rain or after the lichen patches have been irrigat ed. The income is taxable. Landowners collect the li chen themselves or sell col lecting licenses to outsid ers. Lichen is mainly used for ornamental purposes. Photos: Kauko Salo. 146 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 6.5 The weight (1,000 kg) and value (£ 1,000) of Cladonia stellaris exports from Fennos candia in 1970-1975 (Kauppi 1979). The international trade of this species is largely carried on by Finland, Sweden and Norway, whose combined lichen exports in 1970-1975 were in the region of 3,000 tons a year, representing an annual value of 12 million FIM (Kauppi 1979) (Table 6.5). Lichen is mostly exported to central Europe where the leading importers nowadays are Germany (78 % of exported volume), Austria, Italy and Netherlands (Yearbook of forest statistics... 1990). In 1979, the number one importer of lichen from Fennoscandia was Germany (82 %) and second place (10 %) went to Denmark (Kauppi 1979). As of 1990, Nor way has begun to tax incomes obtained from collecting lichen. Sweden has be gun to subsidise exports of Cladonia alpestris as a means of improving its competitiveness (Salo 1991 a). Christmas trees and ornamental foliage A custom in Finland has been to take one's Christmas tree from the forest, with or without the permission of the landowner. Some have it given to them by friends. The third alternative is to buy it from the market place just before Christmas. Norway spruce (Picea abies) has been the traditional choice (Fig ure 6.10). Landowners themselves have begun to sell Christmas trees at mar kets and other such places. Logging operations are the main source of Christ mas trees; the tops of felled trees are trimmed to suitable size. Imports of Christmas trees to Finland have been minimal as exotic spruces and certain pines (e.g. Pinus contorta) have not yet become popular. There are some tens of Christmas tree farms in Finland; these are estimated to produce roughly 40,000 trees. This includes a few farms that raise the pop ular Serbian spruce (Picea omorica). Although the population of Finland is made up of 1.3 million families and an estimated 95 % of them acquire a Christmas tree each year (and then there are the trees for schools, kindergar tens, business enterprises and government offices), it is still reckoned that there is a need for raising about 250,000 trees. The overall worth of the Christ mas tree trade is about 10 million FIM, based on the average price of 40 FIM per tree. The use of green branches has not become popular in Finland; the lit tle demand there is has been met with branches of the indigenous Norway spruce and Scots pine (Lassheikki & Holmberg 1989). 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 Finland Norway Sweden 1907 (733) 1302 (274) 533 (128) 1476 (536) 980 (258) 459(116) 1560 (699) 942 (305) 585 (195) 1537 (975) 911 (373) 623 (236) 837 (701) 1100 (518) 772 (400) 746 (665) 980 (550) 671 (374) Total 3742 (1135) 2915 (910) 3087 (1199) 3071 (1584) 2709 (1619) 2397(1589) 147 Non-timber forest products and their utilization In Sweden, people normally buy a Christmas tree if they live in urban ar eas, and most of the Christmas trees are Norway spruces. The estimated annual consumption of Christmas trees in Sweden is in the region of 2.5-3.0 million trees. In 1989, Swedish tree farmers had about 2 million exotic spruces under cultivation. The most common exotic was blue spruce (Picea pungens) of which there were 1.3 million plants. Second place (0.4 million plants) went to Caucasian silver fir ( Abies nordmanniana). According to one study, winter damage and damage caused by browsing elk, etc., means that only one out of four of these firs reach full size as Christmas trees. The corresponding figure for Picea pungens is 40 % (Normann 1989). Denmark, Norway and Iceland are characterized by their numerous exot ics arranged into different provenance trials. One of the purposes of the trials is eventually to provide Christmas trees and branches for ornamental purposes. Along with Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris, there are plantations of Picea omorica, P. engelmannii and Abies procera, A. nordmanniana, A. lasiocarpa and A. amabilis (Froland et al. 1989). The original Christmas trees used by the people of Iceland were birches with juniper branches hung on them. Lately, plantations of Picea abies have been established in significant amounts as a supply of Christmas trees (Arna son 1989). Today, the market for Christmas trees in Iceland is estimated to be trees. It is reckoned that voluntary forestry associations supply another 2,000 trees (mainly Picea abies and Pinus contorta). Iceland's home grown trees probably satisfy 25-30 % of the demand. All the imported trees come from Denmark. These have gradually gained in popularity as the supply of cheap Abies nordmanniana has increased. Nowadays, Danish fir and cy press greenery dominate the market. Icelanders have nothing with which to challenge these imports (Blöndal 1993). Christmas trees and ornamental foliage have a significant role in Danish forestry. Danes use annually some 1.3 million Christmas trees in their homes and another 0.2 million in public facilities. The leading Christmas tree species is Norway spruce (consumption 0.85 million trees), and Abies nordmanniana (0.5 million) comes second. Abies procera (0.15 million) is an example of an other species used for this purpose (ostergard 1989). Caucasian silver fir is Denmark's economically most significant Christ mas tree species while noble fir (Abies procera) is mainly used as a raw mate rial for ornamental works. The first cuttings are made when the tree is 8-10 years old (Jensen 1989). Christmas tree cultivations cover a total area of 5,217 hectares in Denmark. Caucasian silver fir accounts for 73 % of the cultivated area, noble fir for 6 % and the remaining species (incl. cypress, thuja, Douglas fir and Norway spruce) for 21 %. Plantations aimed at producing ornamental foliage cover an area of 7,367 hectares. The leading tree species, Caucasian silver fir, covers 37 % of the cul tivated area, next is noble fir with 34 %. The rest of the cultivated area is cov ered by various species (Christensen 1979). The cultivated area of Christmas 148 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 6.10 Christmas trees help to bring the joy of Christmas into the home. Norway spruce ( Picea abies) has been the traditional choice. The estimated annual con sumption of Christmas trees in the Nordic coun tries is 6.5-7.5 million trees. Photo: Kauko Salo. trees and decorative greenery is currently believed to be twice the figures men tioned above. Ornamental foliage consists of evergreen branchlets used for decorative purposes mostly around Christmas, but smaller amounts of cypress, for instance, are used for wreaths the year round. This form of production ex panded so much in the 1970 s and 1980 s that today Denmark is Europe's leader in the field. Ornamental foliage plantations are cultivated very intensively, and large investments are necessary for the purchasing of first-rate plants, weed control equipment and fertilizers. Irrigation is often also an expense category. Planta tions for the purpose of producing ornamental foliage make up 3.1 % (over 12,000 ha) of Denmark's forested area. Ten million Christmas trees are pro duced and about 27,000 tons of ornamental foliage were cut in 1991. The ma jority of this production is exported. 149 Non-timber forest products and their utilization References Ahti, T. 1977. Lichens of the boreal coniferous zone. In: Seaward, M.R.D. (ed.). Lichen Ecology. London, New York, San Francisco, p. 145-181. Ahti, T., Hämet-Ahti, L. & Jalas, J. 1964. Luoteis-Euroopan kasvillisuus vyöhykkeistä ja kasvillisuusalueista. (Vegetation zones and vegetation regions in North-West Europe.) Luonnon Tutkija 68: 1-28. (In Finnish.) Ahti, T., Hämet-Ahti, L. & Jalas, J. 1968. Vegetation zones and their sections in northwestern Europe. Annales Botanici Fennici 5: 169-211. Albertsen, J.F., Knudsen, H. & Sorensen, P.G. 1981. Svampespisning i Danmark. (Eating of mushrooms in Denmark.) Svampe 4: 49-58. (In Danish.) Arnason, A. 1989. Erfaringer med ulike treslag/provenienser pä Island. (Experiences with different tree species/provenances in Iceland.) PS Näledrys 10: 37-38. (In Norwegian.) Bengtson, B. (ed.). 1976. Nordisk miljörätt: en översikt. (Nordic environmental law: an overview.) Nordisk utredningsserie 25: 1-117. Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Blöndal, S. 1993. Socioeconomic importance of forests in Iceland. In: Alden, J., Mastrantonio, J.L. & Odum, S. (ed.). Forest development in cold climates. Plenum Press, New York. 13 pp. Blöndal, S., Benedikz, P. & Ottosson, J.G. 1986. Forestry in Iceland: a brief descrip tion of its history and present status. Iceland Forestry Service, Forestry report 8. 32 pp. Braskke, F.H. 1990. Peatland and paludified forest on mineral soil in Norway: poten tials for forest production. In: Hänell, B. (ed.). Biomass production and ele ment fluxes in forested peatland ecosystems. SLU, Umeä. p. 29-32. Christensen, P. 1979. Areal- og produktionsundersögelse av nobilis og nordmanns gran. Skovteknisk institut, Rapport 3: 1-76. Dahlberg, A. 1991. Ectomycorrhiza in coniferous forest: structure and dynamics of populations and communities. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala. 38 pp. Egeland, I.L. & Myhr, S. 1988. Sikre sopper. (Safe mushrooms.) Ärhus. 104 pp. (In Danish.) Eriksson, L. Ingelög, T. & Kardell, L. 1979. Bläbär, lingon, hallon: förekomst och bärproduktion i Sverige 1974—1977. Summary: Bilberry, lingonberry, rasp berry: occurrence and production in Sweden 1974—1977. Sveriges lantbruksu niversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 16. 124 pp. Friluftsliv. (Outdoor recreation.) 1985. Miljoverndepartementet, Oslo. 148 pp. (In Norwegian.) Froland, A., Gislerud, 0., Haug, G. & Ronshoff, E. 1989. Treslag og plante materiale for juletraer og pyntegront i Norge. (Tree species and seedling material for Christmas trees and ornamental foliage in Norway.) PS Näledrys 10: 24—30. (In Norwegian.) Hallgrimsson, H. 1990. Ber og sveppir. Summary: Berries and mushrooms. In: Skög raktarbökin. Skograktarfelag Islands, Reykjavik, p. 239-243. 150 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Hämet-Ahti, L., Suominen, J., Ulvinen, T.. Uotila, P. & Vuokko, S. 1986. Retkeily kasvio. (Flora handbook for hikers.) Suomen luonnonsuojelun tuki, Helsinki. 598 pp. (In Finnish.) Hänell, B. 1990. Present situation and future possibilities of peatland forestry in Swe den. In: Hänell, B. (ed.). Biomass production and element fluxes in forested peatland ecosystems. Proceedings of a seminar in Umeä, Sweden, September 3-7, 1990. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeä. p. 45^18. Hansen, L. & Knudsen, H. (eds.). 1992. Nordic Macromycetes. Vol. 2. Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Russulales. Copenhagen. 474 pp. Harmaja, H., Korhonen, M. & Akerblom, H. 1978. Myrkkysienet ja sienimyrky tykset. (Poisonous mushrooms and mushroom poisonings.) Weilin & Göös, Espoo. 55 pp. (In Finnish. ) Hintikka, V. 1988. On the macromycete flora in oligotrophic pine forests of different ages in South Finland. In: Vanninen, I. & Raatikainen, M. (eds.). Proceedings of the Finnish-Soviet symposium on non-timber forest resources in Jyväskylä, Finland, 25-29 August 1986. Acta Botanici Fennica 136: 89-94. Hoeg, O.A. 1974. Planter og tradisjon. (Plants and tradition.) Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. 751 pp. (In Norwegian.) von Hofsten, B. & Holmberg, P. 1980. S vamp - gott? nyttig? giftig? (Mushrooms - tasty? useful? poisonous?) Konsumentverket, Helsinborg. (In Swedish.) Hoiland, K. & Ryvarden, L. 1984. Norsk matsopp. (Norwegian edible mushrooms.) Universitetsforlaget, Oslo. 123 pp. (In Norwegian.) Hultman, S.-G. 1983. Hur mycket bär och svamp plockar vi egentligen? Summary: How much berries and mushrooms do we actually pick? Vär Föda 35: 284- 297. Huttunen, A. 1978. Hilla- ja karpalosadoista Siuran alueella. Summary: On the cloudberry and cranberry yields in Siura district, N-Finland. Suo 29(1): 17- 21. Ingmanson, I. & Holmberg, P. 1988. Suuri marjakirja. (The big berry book.) Gum merus Oy, Jyväskylä/Helsinki. 223 pp. (In Finnish.) Jäppinen, J.-P., Kirsi, M. & Salo, K. 1985. Luonnonvaraisten sienten sadot ja kaupal linen poiminta Itä-Suomessa, ensisijaisesti Pohjois-Karjalan läänissä. (The yields of wild mushrooms and commercial picking in eastern Finland, espe cially in the province of Pohjois-Karjala.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonan toja 200. 103 pp. (In Finnish.) Jäppinen, J.-R, Hotanen, J.-P. & Salo, K. 1986. Marja-ja sienisadot ja niiden suhde metsikkötunnuksiin mustikka- ja puolukkatyypin kankailla Ilomantsissa vuosina 1982-1984. Summary: Yields of wild berries and larger fungi and their relationship to stand characteristics on MT and VT -type mineral soil sites in Ilomantsi, eastern Finland, 1982-84. Folia Forestalia 670. 25 pp. Jensen, J.H. 1989. Pyntegrontproduktionen i Danmark: nuvärende stade. (The pro duction of ornamental foliage in Denmark: present situation.) PS Näledrys 10: 14-15. (In Danish.) Kalliola, R. 1973. Suomen kasvimaantiede. (The botanical geography of Finland.) WSOY, Porvoo. 308 pp. (In Finnish.) Non-timber forest products and their utilization 151 Kardell, L. 1979. Taltorpsmon: ett rekreationsomräde i Ätvidaberg. (Taltorpsmon: a recreation area in Ätvidaberg.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 17. 92 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. 1980. Skogsmarkens bar och svampar: en hotad resurs? (Forest berries and mushrooms: an endangered resource?) Sveriges Skogsvärdsförbunds Tid skrift 78: 5-19. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. 1984. Skogsgödlingens inverkan pä bär och matsvampar. (Impacts of for est fertilization on berries and edible mushrooms.) Skogsfakta 5: 67-73. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. & Carlsson, E. 1982. Hjortron, tranbär, lingon: förekomst och bärproduk tion i Sverige 1978-1980. Summary: Cloudberry, cranberry, cowberry: occur rence and berry production in Sweden 1978-1980. Sveriges lantbruksuniver sitetet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 25. 139 pp. Kardell, L. & Eriksson, C. 1987. Kremlor, riskor, soppar: skogsbruksmetodernas inverkan pä produktionen av matsvampar. (Russulas, milk caps and boleti. The impacts of forestry practices on the production of edible mushrooms.) Sveriges Skogsvärdsförbunds Tidskrift 2: 3-23. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. & Johansson, M.-L. 1982. Gislavedsborna och torvmarksdikning: en atti tydstudie. (The inhabitants of Gislaved and peatland drainage: a study of atti tudes.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 26. 117 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L., Persson, 0., Carlsson, E. & Eriksson, L. 1980. Skogsmarkens produktion av marksvampar. (The production of edible mushrooms on forest land.) Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift 74:91-102. (In Swedish.) Kauppasieniopas. (A guidebook of commercial mushrooms.) 1988. Valtion paina tuskeskus, Helsinki. 65 pp. (In Finnish.) Kauppi, M. 1979. The exploitation of Cladonia stellaris in Finland. Lichenologist 11(1): 85-89. Kauppi, M. 1990. Lectures about lichens. Picking forest products -course in Kullaa. 26.4.1990. Kivinen, E. & Pakarinen, P. 1980. Peatland areas and the proportion of virgin peat lands in different countries. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Peat Con gress, Duluth, Minnesota, p. 52-54. Knudsen, H. 1983. Politikens svampebog. (Politiken's mushroom book.) Politikens Forlag A/S, Copenhagen. 192 pp. (In Danish.) Korhonen, M. 1987. Uusi sienikirja. (New mushroom book.) 2. painos. Otava, Hel sinki. 318 pp. (In Finnish.) Kortesharju, J. 1984. Observation on cloudberry crops in Finland. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). Multiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120: 86-88. Kortesharju, J. 1988. Cloudberry yields and factors affecting the yield in northern Finland. In: Vänninen, I. & Raatikainen, M. (eds.). Proceedings of the Finn ish-Soviet symposium on non-timber forest resources in Jyväskylä, Finland, 25-29 August 1986. Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 77-80. 152 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Kortesharju, J., Mäkinen, Y., Hippa, H. & Koponen S. 1978. Hilla Lapin luonnonva rana. (Cloudberry as a natural resource in Lapland.) Acta Lapponica Fenniae 10: 69-77. (In Finnish.) Kujala, M., Malin, A., Ohenoja, E. & Sipola, K. 1989. Oulun läänin luonnonmarja ja sienivarat, niiden satoarviot, hyödyntäminen ja sivutulollinen merkitys/ OUKA-projekti. (The wild berry and mushroom resources in the province of Oulu; estimates of the yields, utilization and significance as a source of addi tional income/OUKA -project.) Pellervo-Seuran markkinatutkimuslaitos, Helsinki. 74 pp. (In Finnish.) Kunnas. H.J. 1973. Metsätaloustuotanto Suomessa 1860-1965. (The production of forestry in Finland 1860-1965.) Suomen Pankin julkaisuja, Helsinki. 193 pp. (In Finnish.) Lange, M. 1948. The agarics of Maglemose: a study in the ecology of the agarics. Dansk Botanisk Arkiv 13(1): I—l4l. Lassheikki, M. & Holmberg, G. 1989. Produktion och hemmamarknad för julgranar och gröna kvistar i Finland. (Production and domestic markets for Christmas trees and green branches in Finland.) PS Näledrys 10: 36-37. (In Swedish.) Luonnonmarjaopas. (A guidebook of wild berries.) 1988. Valtion painatuskeskus, Helsinki. 58 pp. (In Finnish.) Mäyränpää, P. 1981. Sienen silakkoo ja sirveliä - ruokaperinnettä pohjois-karjalaisit tain. (...mushroom...herring... - food traditions in northern Karelia.) In: Poh jois-Karjala tutuksi. Opintotoiminnan keskusliitto ry, Joensuu, p. 41 —4-7. (In Finnish.) Mehus, H. 1986. Fruit body production of macrofungi in some North Norwegian for est types. Nordic Journal of Botany 6: 679-702. Normann, C. 1989. Produktion och hemmamarknad för julgranar och pyntegrönt i Sverige. (Production and domestic markets of Christmas trees and ornamental foliage in Sweden.) PS Näledrys 10: 40-43. (In Swedish.) Nousiainen. H. 1983. Eräiden Vaccinium -lajien pölytysbiologiasta, kukinnasta ja marjonnasta. (Biology of pollination, flowering and berry production of a few Vaccinium -species.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 90: 66-86. (In Finnish.) Numminen, E. 1979. Näkökohtia hillasta. (Viewpoints to cloudberry.) Rovaniemen tutkimusaseman tiedonantoja 21: 39-44. (In Finnish.) Ohenoja, E. 1978 a. Mushrooms and mushroom yields in fertilized forests. Annales Botanici Fennici 15: 38^16. Ohenoja, E. 1978 b. Lapin suursienistä ja sienisadosta. Summary: Aspects of the larger fungi and mushroom yields in Finnish Lapland. Acta Lapponica Fen niae 10: 84-88. Ohenoja, E. 1984. Fruit body production of larger fungi in Finland. 1. Introduction to the study in 1976-1978. Annales Botanici Fennici 21: 349-355. Ohenoja, E. 1993. Effect of weather conditions on the larger fungi at different forest sites in northern Finland in 1876-1978. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis. Series A 243: 1-69. Ohenoja, E. & Metsänheimo, K. 1982. Phenology and fruit body production of mac rofungi in subarctic Finnish Lapland. In: Larsen, G.A. & Ammirati, J.F. (eds.). Arctic and alpine mycology, p. 390-404. 153 Non-timber forest products and their utilization Ohenoja, E. & Koistinen, R. 1984. Fruit body production of larger fungi in Finland. 2. Edible fungi in northern Finland 1976-1978. Annales Botanici Fennici 21: 357-366. Östergärd, K. 1989. Det danske hjemmemarked for juletraer og klippegront. (The domestic market for Christmas trees and ornamental foliage in Denmark.) PS Näledrys 10: 4-5. (In Danish.) Pekkarinen, M., Poikela, M. & Koskinen, E. 1980. Sienten käyttö kotitalouksissa. (The utilization of mushrooms in households.) Helsingin yliopisto, Elintar vikekemian ja-teknologian laitos, EKT-sarja 537: 1-159. (In Finnish.) Pontoppidan, E. 1752. Det forste forsog pä Norges naturlige historie, Bind 1. (The first effort on the natural history of Norway, Part. 1.) Kobenhavn. 338 pp. (In Danish.) Päivänen, J. 1990. Peatland forestry in Finland: an overview. In: Hänell, B. (ed.). Biomass production and element fluxes in forested peatland ecosystems. Pro ceedings of a seminar in Umeä, Sweden, September 3-7, 1990. Swedish Uni versity of Agricultural Sciences, Umeä. p. 33^3. Raamattu. (The Bible). 1954. Viides Mooseksen Kirja. Luku 23, jakeet 24-25. Raatikainen, M. 1978. Puolukan sato, poiminta ja markkinointi Pihtiputaan kunnassa. Summary: The berry yield, picking and marketing of Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. in the commune of Pihtipudas. Silva Fennica 12(2): 126-139. Raatikainen, M. & Raatikainen, T. 1983. Puolukan sato, poiminta ja markkinointi Pihtiputaalla. Summary: The berry yield, picking and marketing of Vaccinium myrtillus in the commune of Pihtipudas, northern central Finland. Silva Fen nica 17(2): 113-123. Raatikainen, M., Rossi, E., Huovinen, J., Koskela. M.-L., Niemelä, M. & Raatikai nen, T. 1984. Metsä-ja suomarjasadot Väli-Suomessa. Summary: The yields of the edible wild berries in Central Finland. Silva Fennica 18(3): 199-219. Rautavaara, T. 1947. Suomen sienisato. Summary: Studies on the mushroom crop in Finland and its utilization. WSOY, Porvoo. 534 pp. Rossi, E., Raatikainen, M., Huovinen, J., Koskela, M.-L. & Niemelä, M. 1984. Luonnonmarjojen poiminta ja käyttö Väli-Suomessa. Summary: The picking and use of edible wild berries in Central Finland. Silva Fennica 18(3): 221 236. Ruuhijärvi, R. 1974. Soiden karpalosadoista. Summary: On the cranberry yields on peatlands. Suo 25(2): 25-30. Saari, V. & Salonen, V. 1983. Luonnontilaisten suotyyppien sienisadoista Korpilah den Ristisuolla vuosina 1981 ja 1982. (Mushroom yields on natural peatlands types in Ristisuo in Korpilahti, 1981-1982.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedon antoja 91: 10-20. (In Finnish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1983. Marjojen ja sienten talteenoton taloudesta. (Economics of gathering berries and mushrooms.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 91: 41-53. (In Finnish.) Salo, K. 1979. Mushrooms and mushroom yield on transitional peatlands in Central Finland. Annales Botanici Fennici 16: 181-192. Salo, K. 1982. Metsänhoitotoimenpiteet ja marja- ja sienisadot. (Forestry methods and the yields of berries and mushrooms.) Pohjois-Karjalan Luonto 12: 14— 18. (In Finnish.) 154 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Salo, K. 1983. Marja-ja sienisatojen seuranta VMI -tutkimuksen osana Pohjois- Karjalassa. (The survey of berry and mushroom yields as a part of a NFI (National Forest Inventory) -study in North Karelia.) Metsäntutkimuslaitok sen tiedonantoja 90: 122-134. (In Finnish.) Salo, K. 1984. Joensuun ja Seinäjoen asukkaiden luonnonmarjojen ja sienten poiminta v. 1982. Summary: The picking of wild berries and mushrooms by the inhabitants of Joensuu and Seinäjoki in 1982. Folia Forestalia 598. 21 pp. Salo, K. 1985. Luonnonmarjojen ja sienten poiminta Suomussalmella ja eräissä Poh jois-Karjalan kunnissa. Summary: Wild-berry and edible-mushroom picking in Suomussalmi and in some North Karelian communes, eastern Finland. Folia Forestalia 621. 30 pp. Salo, K. 1988 a. Soiden monikäyttö, marjat ja sienet. (Multiple use of peatlands, ber ries and mushrooms.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 308:187-198. (In Finnish.) Salo, K. 1988 b. Sienilajisto ja -sato Ylä-Karjalan metsä- ja suotyypeillä 1981-1984. (Mushroom species and yields on the different forest and peatland types in North Karelia, 1981-1984.) Lisensiaattityö. (Licentiate thesis.) Helsingin yli opisto. 213 pp. (In Finnish.) Salo, K. 1991 a. Marjat, sienet ja jäkälät: osa metsien monikäyttöä. (Berries, mush rooms and lichens: a component in multiple-use forestry.) In: Tapion Taskukirja. Gummerus Oy, Jyväskylä, p. 246-260. (In Finnish.) Salo, K. 1991 b. Metsien monikäyttöjä keräilytuotteet. (Multiple-use forestry and the by-products.) Karjalainen, yliö. 4.8.1991. (In Finnish.) Salo, K. 1992. Regional significance of wild berry picking in Kainuu. In: Suomus salmi eco-municipality. Research. Results. Experimentation. Opinions. Suomussalmi Municipality, p. 52-57. Salo, K. 1993 a. Yields of commercial edible mushroom species in mineral soil for ests in Finland, 1985-1986. Aquilo. Ser. Botanica 31: 115-121. Salo, K. 1993 b. The composition and structure of macrofungns communities in boreal upland type forests and peatlands in North Karelia, Finland. Karstenia 33(2): 61-99. Salonen, V. & Saari, V. 1990. Generic composition of macrofungus communities on virgin mire site types in Central Finland. Acta Botanica Fennica 27: 33-38. Sjöblom, M., Wessman, L., Albrecht, A. & Rancken, R. 1979. Svampproduktionen samt en jämförelse av virkes-, bär- och svampproduktionens värde i nägra skogar i Ekenästrakten 1976-78. (The production of mushrooms and a com parison of value of the production of timber, berries and mushrooms in a few forest areas in the Ekenäsregion, 1976-78.) Yrkesutbildningsstyrelsen, Avdel ningen för forstundervisning, preliminär rapport. 51 pp. (In Swedish.) Steindörsson, S. 1964. Grööur ä Islandi. Summary: Vegetation in Iceland. Almenna bökafelagiö, Reykjavik. 186 pp. Valset, K. 1974. Naturbärens ekonomiska betydelse i Norden, diskussionsinlägg. (The economic importance of wild berries in the Nordic countries, a contribu tion to the discussion.) Lantbrukhögskolan, Konsulentavdelningens stencil serie, Trädgärd 71: 8. (In Swedish.) Valset, K., Gulden, G. & Lunder, R. 1976. Utmarksressurser i for- og matproduksjon. Bter, notter, andre nyttevekster. Sopp. Honning. (Wilderness resources for fod- 155 Non-timber forest products and their utilization der and food production. Berries, nuts and other useful plants. Mushrooms and honey.) Statens Forskningsstasjon Kise, Nes Hedmark. As/Oslo/Asker. 61 pp. (In Norwegian.) Vauras, J. & Huhtinen, S. 1980. Turun Ruissalon metsäsienisadosta vuosina 1977-78. (Mushroom yields in Ruissalo, Turku, 1977-78.) 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Folia Forestalia 760: 1-246. 156 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 157 Reindeer husbandry and hunting 7 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Timo Helle 1 Abstract Reindeer husbandry started in Scandinavia in the late medieval period. Most of the reindeer herders are Sami people. The amount of reindeer is limited by winter food resources. Areas suffering from a range crisis are apparent in Fin land, Norway and Sweden. Reindeer have been suspected of preventing or hindering natural regeneration of Scots pine, whereas forestry has been shown to reduce the carrying capacity of winter ranges. Reindeer husbandry is severely threatened by pollution; damage has been caused by radiocesium and sulphur dioxide. Tourism and outdoor recreation increase the demand for reindeer meat and souvenirs but they also have negative effects on this liveli hood. Hunting is one of the most popular hobbies in Scandinavia. In terms of the amount of meat, moose is today the most important game species in Fen noscandia, but at the same time the greatest single damaging agent in forests. Moose benefit from the early stages of forest succession. The number of grouse has been decreasing in all the Scandinavian countries. The decline of capercaillie has been the most drastic. Capercaillie, the most preferred game bird, is adapted to mature coniferous forests, and thus suffers from forest regeneration. Experiments have recently been carried out in order to develop ways of including game management aspects into forestry planning. Keywords: reindeer, game, hunting, carrying capacity, grazing, administra tion, planning. 1 Finnish Forest Research Institute Rovaniemi Research Station RO.Box 16, FIN-96301 Rovaniemi, Finland 158 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 7.1 Introduction Definitions of multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries include reindeer husbandry and hunting for game (Hytönen 1995). The reindeer husbandry area in Finland, Norway and Sweden covers about 30 % of the land area; about 15,000 people, most of them of Sami origin, are involved in that liveli hood. Hunting is a hobby for about one million persons. Professional hunters can be found only in the northernmost Fennoscandia. Especially in Finland and Sweden, the most valuable reindeer ranges are located within the Eurasian taiga zone. Similarly, most game mammals and birds are adapted to forested habitats. This means that reindeer and game pro duction commonly take place in the same areas which are also used for wood production. The relationships between wood production and these other prod ucts are highly variable. The ones most discussed are, understandably, com petitive relationships. A typical example is capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus L.), the most preferred game bird, which is adapted to mature coniferous forests, and suffers thus from forest renovation (Järvinen et ai. 1977, Rolstad 1989 a). In the case of reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.), the relationships are more com plicated. Semi-domesticated reindeer have been suspected of preventing or hindering natural regeneration of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) (Wretlind 1931. Bergan 1962, Kollström 1988), whereas mechanical forestry has been shown to reduce the carrying capacity of winter ranges (Eriksson 1975, Matts son 1981, Helle et ai. 1990 a). In contrast to capercaillie and reindeer, moose (Alces alces L.) is a species adapted to the early stages of forest succession and thus benefits from various kinds of silvicultural practices (Ahlen 1975, Lavsund 1987). As to the amount of meat, moose is nowadays the most impor tant game species in the Fennoscandian taiga forests, but at the same time the greatest single damaging agent in forests. This chapter gives an overall picture of reindeer husbandry and hunting for game in the Nordic countries nowadays. The main purpose is to describe and evaluate how forestry and, to a lesser extent, some other forms of forest utili zation have influenced reindeer ranges and game habitats. 7.2 Reindeer husbandry History The Fennoscandian semi-domesticated reindeer is a descendant of the wild mountain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) (Siivonen 1975). Tamed reindeer were used as decoy animals in prehistoric times in the hunting of wild reindeer; later on these reindeer were probably used as draft animals (e.g. Ruong 1982). In contrast, monocultural reindeer nomadism is of much younger origin. It is a commonly accepted tenet that in Fennoscandia it was 159 Reindeer husbandry and hunting "discovered" in the late medieval period in the Vefsen area of the Norwegian coast (Vorren 1973). From there it expanded its range over the centuries both to the south and northeast, along the Scandinavian mountain range. The rein deer nomads there were Sami people. In the 17th century, semi-domesticated reindeer were introduced into northern Finland, where reindeer husbandry was also adopted by Finnish settlers. The present distribution of reindeer husbandry and wild reindeer in Fennoscandia is shown in Figure 7.1. Rein deer from Norwegian stock were introduced in the 18th century to Iceland, where at present there are a few thousand feral animals (Thorisson 1980). In southern Norway, there are about 40,000 wild mountain reindeer (Reimers 1986); their number in the Kola peninsula was about 20,000 in the late 1960 s (Semenov-Tian-Shanskii 1975), but has since then strongly decreased. The only Fennoscandian wild forest reindeer (Rangifer tarandus fennicus Lönn berg) population lives in Russian Karelia and eastern Finland, where there is a total of 6,000-7,000 animals (Heikura et ai. 1983). Sami reindeer nomadism was originally quite stationary (Ruong 1982), but later it has been characterized by long migrations between winter ranges located in coniferous forests, and summer ranges on fells or, as in northern most Scandinavia, on the shore and islands of the Arctic Ocean. In contrast to what is commonly believed, migrations reaching the coast are not an adapta- Figure 7.1 Distribution of reindeer husbandry and wild reindeer in Fennoscandia (Semenov- Tian-Shanskii 1975, Heikura et ai. 1985, Skjenneberg 1989, Kojola 1993). 160 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries tion of the behavior of the wild ancestors of semi-domesticated reindeer (Tan ner 1929). From the viewpoint of reindeer husbandry, migrations were reasonable because reindeer were easily kept under control on peninsulas and coastal islands, and at the same time lichen-rich winter ranges were saved from trampling (Oksanen 1978). Migration to the coast also served other pur poses, such as fishing and trading, for instance. The right of free border cross ing for reindeer-herding Sami people was written into the Swedish-Danish/ Norwegian border treaty in 1776. The treaty is still partly in effect allowing some Swedish communities to graze during the summer in certain areas in Norway. The same treaty also applied to the border between Finland and Nor way, because Finland belonged to Sweden until 1809. However, in 1852 the Finnish-Russian authorities unilaterally denied the rights of Sami people to move with reindeer across the border. Thus, reindeer herders in Norway lost the opportunity of using winter ranges in Finland, and the Finnish herders, cor respondingly, of migrating to the coast for the summer. The closing of the bor der confused reindeer management for several decades, and resulted in reorganization of reindeer husbandry in both countries. At present, the longest migrations, in Norway, are still about 350 km, and migrations are typical also to most Swedish herds. Finnish reindeer husbandry is, with few exceptions, quite stationary. Legislation and organizations Any EEA (European Economic Area) citizen living in the Finnish reindeer husbandry area has the right to own reindeer, while in Norway and Sweden ownership is restricted, almost exclusively, to Sami people. The exceptions are reindeer companies in southern Norway and the "concession area" in Sweden beside the Finnish border, where owners can be non-Sämi residents and also, of course, partners or descendants of cross-cultural marriages. The Finnish reindeer husbandry area is divided into 57 herding associa tions (paliskunta) with exact borders. The district is at the same time an admin istrative unit, which is responsible for the management of reindeer, although reindeer are owned by individual owners. In Norway, the Sami reindeer area is divided into more than 100 seasonal or year round grazing districts. In Swe den, the basic unit is a grazing district referred to as a Sami village ("sameby" in Swedish and "Sami siita" in Samish), which is also an economic organiza tion for the members. Their total number is 52, from which 33 are fell villages, 10 forest villages, and 9 concession villages. The number of families receiving their main livelihood from reindeer husbandry in Norway is about 650, in Sweden 800 (Skjenneberg 1989) and in Finland probably a little lower than in Norway because reindeer husbandry is, outside the Sami area, commonly a subsidiary means of livelihood. In each country, the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the public administration of reindeer husbandry. In Norway, Sami herders have their own 161 Reindeer husbandry and hunting organization, The Norwegian Society of Sami Reindeer Owners (Norges Reindrifsamers Landsforering). In Sweden, there are two organizations: the Swedish Sami Society (Svenska Samernas Riksförbund) and the Reindeer Owners Union (Renägareförbundet). In Finland, herding associations belong to the Union of Reindeer Herding Associations (Paliskuntain Yhdistys). Carrying capacity of winter ranges The summer diet of reindeer consists of a great variety of graminids, herbs, and leaves of deciduous trees (see, for a review, Nieminen & Heiskari 1987). In winter, reindeer feed preferably upon reindeer lichens ( Cladina sp.). If these are not available, they mostly rely on dwarf shrubs and grasses, and in forest areas particularly on arboreal lichens (.Alectoria sp.and Bryoria sp.). Very lichen-poor winter diets have been reported, for instance, for semi domesticated reindeer living in the southern part of the Finnish reindeer hus bandry area (Sulkava & Helle 1975). The effects of grazing and trampling are related to their intensity. On li chen heaths, the number of plant species as well as diversity are at a maximum on moderately grazed areas, whilst climax lichen associations are dominated by Cladina stellaris (Opiz) Pouzar & Venzda and, on the other hand, only few species tolerate extremely heavy grazing (Helle & Aspi 1983). Oksanen (1992) suggested that the intermediate disturbance caused by reindeer proba bly contributes to the maintenance of a high floristic diversity, and helps the rarities of Fennoscandian mountain flora to survive. Most commonly, reindeer production is limited by food resources in win ter. A central issue in reasonable herd management is the idea of carrying ca pacity. An equilibrium where the reproductive rate and mortality is equal is referred to as ecological carrying capacity (Caughley 1976). Low reproduction and high mortality are caused by the low food per capita ratio, which in turn is a result of overgrazing. By contrast, maximum sustained yield is obtained at economic carrying capacity. In reindeer husbandry, the aim is to adjust har vesting so that it allows maximum primary production of the feeding plants. The primary production is at a maximum when the biomass accounts for about 50 % of the ungrazed maximum biomass. Reindeer lichens are abundant only on dry and sub-dry sites, where competition from other vegetation is least (Mattila 1981). On such sites, the optimum biomass has a figure of about 1,000 kg/ha, and yearly production of 110 kg/ha (Kärenlampi 1973). On the suggestion that reindeer can fulfil their energy requirement with li chens, both primary production of lichens as well as reindeer production peak ed in wild mountain reindeer in Norway at a reindeer density of 1.8 individuals per km 2 in conditions where the proportion of lichen-rich vegetation types amounted to 12 % of the land area (Skogland 1986). Among semi-domesticat ed herds, the density is commonly higher, leading to a reduction in the lichen biomass. In northern Finland, the lichen biomass varies on dry sites between 162 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 50 and 400 kg/ha (Mattila 1981, 1988), depending on the districts and on ani mal density per lichen range (Helle et al. 1990 b). In the districts with the low est lichen biomasses, reindeer live largely on other food than reindeer lichen, including supplemental feeding in winter. A reduction of lichen biomass is re ported both in Norway and Sweden (Tömmervik et al. 1991, Utsi 1992, Mox ness et al. 1993). In each country there are areas where range crisis is apparent. In Finland, reindeer owners have responded to this in two different ways. Intense supple mental feeding has increased meat production, but it is economically feasible only if the fodder can be obtained largely from one's own fields. Another method is calf harvest, which reduces the overall mortality rate, because calves are the first ones to starve when faced with a food shortage (Helle & Kojola 1993). This indicates that the detrimental effects of range depletion can be avoided to some extent by reasonable management practices. However, in tense supplemental feeding seems inevitably to intensify overgrazing of lichen ranges, since reduced lichen availability does not have an effect on the popu lation size; due to their high desirability, lichens are used already in the autumn and early winter (Helle & Kojola 1993). If intense supplemental feeding is re jected because of its high costs, the only way to maintain reindeer production at a stable level is by improvement of the condition of lichen ranges. Oksanen (1992) considered that in some areas in Sweden reindeer spoil lichen ranges by trampling them in summer. This problem may partly be solved by revising the border treaty allowing an increased number of Swedish reindeer to graze during the summer in the Norwegian mountains, which almost wholly lack li chen vegetation that would be sensitive to trampling. Above all, the number of reindeer has to be adjusted to overall range availability, since most Swedish Sami communities have no legal right to graze in Norway. In Norway, range depletion is most obvious in Finnmark, where it has been planned to half the reindeer population, with the financial support of the state (see also Moxness et al. 1993). Reindeer production Criteria and accuracy of reindeer countings have varied at different times, and there are also apparent differences between countries. In general, the present data are more reliable than former ones. Finland is the only country whose law on reindeer husbandry categorically requires that reindeer must be tallied annually. In 1990, the number of reindeer in the winter herd (i.e. after harvesting) amounted in Finland, Norway, and Sweden to 230,000, 220,000, and 300,000 animals, respectively. Density averages about 2 individuals per km 2 . It varies considerably within each country, and is highest (up to 4 individuals per km 2 ) in northernmost Fennoscandia. In the long term, reindeer numbers have varied remarkably. Figures comparable to the present ones occurred in Sweden and 163 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Finland in the 19305. In each country, the reindeer population experienced a crash in the early 19705, due to exceptionally difficult snow conditions, but has doubled since then (Figure 7.2). According to a rule of thumb, meat production per reindeer (in the winter herd) is about 10 kg annually. However, the variation in production both per reindeer and per unit area is remarkable. In each country, the highest produc tion per reindeer can be found in southern herds, whilst production per km 2 is highest in the northernmost herds, due to higher density (Lenvik 1988, Kojola & Helle 1991). In 1990, the total production in Finland, Norway, and Sweden was 3.5, 2.5 and 2.6 million kg, respectively. These figures exceed the average for the last 20 years. The value of production was in 1990 in Finland 120 mil lion, in Norway 60 million, and in Sweden 80 million Swedish crowns. In each country, reindeer production is subsidized directly or indirectly by the state. Development of reindeer husbandry to its present state has been reviewed re cently by Staaland and Nieminen (1993). Anecdotes from the old days of reindeer husbandry tell that a rich reindeer owner could become poor in a few days or weeks due to wolves (Canis lupus L.), reindeer diseases, or starvation (e.g. Itkonen 1948, Ingold 1982, Ruong 1980). Deaths due to starvation are not unfamiliar to present reindeer hus bandry, whilst epidemic diseases have almost wholly disappeared, and the numbers of large predators are controlled. Figure 72 The number of reindeer (summer herd) and annual harvest in Finland 1960-91 Source: Official reindeer catalogues (Paliskuntain Yhdistys). 164 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Most attention has been paid to the high mortality of calves during their first summer. In Finland, 45 % and 27 % of calves, on average, were lost be tween calf-marking and winter in 1981 and 1982, respectively (Nieminen 1993). It appeared that the calves which perished were in mid-summer some what lighter than those which survived. The same result was obtained by Haukioja and Salovaara (1978), suggesting that the high mortality was related to the poor condition of the reindeer. However, the reasons for calf mortality may vary both annually and with area. Recently, Bjärvall et ai. (1990) examined mortality and mortality factors in Jäkkakaska and Umby Sami villages in northern Sweden. The study was carried out using ear-tagged and partly also radio-collared animals. Mortality averaged 17 % during the first year, and later about 3 % annually. Among calves, the most common mortality factor was large predators, which were re sponsible for 66 % of the losses; for diseases the figure amounted to 13 %. Wolverine (Gulo gulo L.) and Lynx (Lynx lynx L.) killed about 90 % of calves caught by predators. Also among adult reindeer, predators were a common mortality factor. In 1990-91, the total number of reindeer killed by predators was in Fin land, Norway, and Sweden, 900, 700, and 9,000, respectively (Bjärvall et ai. 1991, Nieminen & Leppäluoto 1993). Those figures included only reindeer ac tually found and indemnified by the state. In Finland, losses due to predators are clearly smaller than in the 19705, whilst in Sweden they have steadily in creased. Calf-marking takes place in Finland and Sweden generally in mid-sum mer, when reindeer gather into large herds in order to avoid the plague caused by blood-sucking and other parasitic insects. In Norway, calves of most of the herds are marked in autumn before the autumn migration to the winter grounds. Counting and harvesting of reindeer takes place in round-ups organ ized in autumn and winter. The adoption of snow-mobiles in the 1960 s revo lutionized gathering and herding routines; because reindeer were easy to get together, close herding was not needed (Pelto 1973, Mtiller-Wille 1975). Lat er, motor cycles and other terrain vehicles displaced a walking herder in sum mer, and nowadays helicopters are also used in placing and gathering reindeer. The possible stress effects of motorization on reindeer are still under discus sion (Rehbinder et ai. 1982). Interestingly, totally new innovations are arising from the concern for the animals' well-being and various environmental issues, including, for exemple, ground deterioration caused by terrain vehicles, and the high costs of motori zation that in turn forces the upkeep of maximal reindeer densities. For in stance, the Sami community of Grans in Sweden employs Icelandic ponies in gathering reindeer in summer and autumn. 165 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Reindeer husbandry and forestry In Finland, about 75 % of the reindeer population, and in Sweden almost all reindeer spend the winter in coniferous forests also commonly used for tim ber production. Confrontations between reindeer husbandry and forestry have been the "normal situation" since wood began to have commercial value in the later part of the 19th century. Foresters have suspected that reindeer may prevent natural regeneration of Scots pine, whilst reindeer owners have accused modern forestry of deterioration of winter ranges. The conflicts have been very similar in Finland and Sweden, partly also in Norway (Bergan 1962, Eriksson 1975, Mattsson 1981, Saastamoinen 1982). The evaluation of the impacts of reindeer grazing on silviculture has ap peared to be a difficult task, since it involves both apparent benefits and dis advantages. Brown and Mikola (1974) showed that, in laboratory conditions, lichen extracts inhibited the development of mycorrhiza in Scots pine seed lings. The experiment was then repeated in the field by surrounding the seed lings with a thick lichen mat. These seedlings grew more slowly than controls lacking lichen cover. Therefore, Brown and Mikola (1974) suggested that reindeer grazing may improve natural regeneration by reducing lichen ex tracts. However, the experimental design did not convince Kershaw (1985), who stated that a thick lichen mat also alters the growing conditions physically in several ways. Another aspect to the problem is that reindeer can cause damage by rub bing their antlers against young Scots pines during the autumn and winter, or by breaking smaller plants in winter, when they dig for lichens beneath the snow. Mechanical damage can be quite abundant locally, but opinions on their silvicultural importance have been somewhat conflicting (Aaltonen 1919, Arnborg 1955, Bergan 1962, Kollström 1988). Helle and Moilanen (1993) compared natural regeneration and growth of Scots pines on both sides of the southern border of the Finnish reindeer hus bandry area. Thus, the field sample comprised both heavily grazed and un grazed regeneration areas. Grazing did not affect the number of plants capable of developing. The death or poor condition of seedlings was in 80 % of the cas es caused primarily by fungal diseases, and in 10 % by reindeer. Grazing slightly increased the frequency of Scleroderris canker (Assocalys abietina (Lagerb.) Schläpfer). On the other hand, there existed a strong negative corre lation between mechanical damage caused by reindeer and the incidence of snow blight (Phacidium infestans Karst.). Feeding of large reindeer herds dis turbs and hardens the snow cover thoroughly, and thus impedes the spreading of the fungus (see Roll-Hansen 1975). Contrary to the results of Brown and Mikola (1974), removal of lichens did not improve the growth of seedlings which were less than 20 cm in height. On the contrary, seedlings between the age of 14-24 years grew faster on heavily grazed than on lightly grazed regeneration areas. Removal of lichens 166 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries increases soil temperature in summer (Kershaw & Field 1975). Raitio (1990) showed that seedlings growing in warm soil (+2O °C) had more root tips and mycorrhizae than plants growing in cool soil (+lO °C); the difference was then also reflected in the growth of the shoot. One may assume that smaller seed lings, having a superficial root system, obviously suffered from lack of water, and lost the benefit of the improved soil temperature. Another study examined how removal of lichen by reindeer affected the growth and condition of mature Scots pines (Helle & Nöjd 1992). In two of the three study areas, located in northern Finland, no difference existed in the ra dial growth or in the number of needle age classes between heavily grazed and ungrazed sample plots. In one area, Scots pines showed faster radial growth on grazed sample plots, and they had also more needle age classes. In the same area, the ungrazed lichen mat of the controls was significantly thicker (17 cm, including dead bases) than in the two other areas. It was suggested that the im proved growth and better condition of trees on grazed sample plots were relat ed to higher soil temperatures in summer. The other side of the confrontation, i.e. the accusation that forestry devastates winter ranges, is of younger origin and clearly associated with the adoption of clearcutting and soil preparation in forest renovation. All the most important winter food resources are related to the age of the forest. Arboreal lichens occur in abundance only in forests more than 100 years old (Mattila 1979, Sparrevik 1983). On the other hand, clearcutting on fresh sites increases the biomass of hair grass (Deschampsia flexuosa L.) by 10-20 fold within a few years (Sulkava & Helle 1975, Mattila 1981). With re gard to reindeer lichens, the relationship seems to be more complicated. Inten sity of grazing in terms of pellet group density did not correlate with lichen biomass, but is strongly dependent on the age of the forest (Figure 7.3). The reason for the high preference of old forests remained partly unclear. On clear cut areas, heavy winds may harden the snow, restricting the access to lichens, and reindeer also seem to avoid cutting residue (Eriksson 1975). The avoid ance of young sapling stands is probably associated with poor visibility, which may increase predation risk; similar behaviour is described in wild reindeer (Pruitt 1960). Mattsson (1984) studied the opinions of reindeer owners in northern Swe den on acceptable and non-acceptable forestry, referred to as "harmony area" and "conflict area", respectively. The conflict area was characterized by a high proportion of clearcut areas and young Scots pine stands. The large size of a single regeneration area was also considered unacceptable. In the accepted harmony area, the age distribution of the forest stands was quite even com pared to the conflict area. These two areas had quite a different forestry histo ry. The harmony area had been subjected to frequent and probably selective cuttings between 1900 and 1940, whilst the forests of the conflict area were renovated more recently by clearcutting, and within a relatively short time span. 167 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Figure 7.3 The relationship between the age of the stand and grazing pressure in terms of pel let-group density in Inari, Finnish Lapland (Helle et ai. 1990a). Eriksson et ai. (1986) built up a model to evaluate the long term effects of timber production on reindeer winter ranges in Västerbotten and Norrbotten, Sweden. Availability of reindeer lichens and arboreal lichens was related to the stand age. It was assumed that clearcuttings and freshly thinned stands had no value as lichen ranges. The stands having arboreal lichens were at least 100 years old. Range data was then incorporated into a model calculating the po tential cut up to the year 2080. In most areas, lichen availability was estimated to decline for some decades at the beginning of the next century, and the re duction of arboreal lichens is expected to continue through the whole period. Forest fertilization was in common use especially in the 19705. It was ap plied to increase the growth of middle age or older forests. The effects of fer tilization on the behaviour of reindeer were studied in Västerbotten, Sweden, where about 41 % of pine forests with lichen were fertilized during 1960-74 (Eriksson 1980). Fertilization with ammonium nitrate reduced winter feeding activity of reindeer by 50 % during the winter after fertilization. To urea ferti lization reindeer responded more strongly, and avoiding of the treated sites was still apparent the second winter after fertilization. Forest fertilizers have also a direct impact on reindeer ranges (Eriksson & Raunistola 1993). Doses of around 150 kg of nitrogen per hectare had a posi tive effect on the growth of heather (Calluna vulgaris L.) and lingonberry 168 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.). By contrast, the standing crop of Cladina spp. de creased through the whole 11 year study period. Among the silvicultural treatments, soil preparation using deep-ploughing has evoked the strongest criticism among reindeer owners (Eriksson 1975, Mattsson 1981). The method was developed in the 19605, and was intended to be applied on grounds covered by a thick raw humus layer (e.g. Pohtila 1977). However, it almost totally replaced lighter soil preparation methods, and was used also on drier soils more than was originally planned. Deep-ploughing de stroys a great proportion of the ground vegetation (Eriksson & Raunistola 1990), and when applied to large continuous areas, it may be a serious hin drance for collecting and transporting reindeer. Reindeer husbandry and air pollution Nordic reindeer husbandry areas are located far from great industrial centers. Nevertheless, reindeer husbandry is a livelihood severely threatened by atmospheric air pollution. Relatively high concentrations of radiocesium were found in the lichen-reindeer-man food chain already in the 1960 s as a result of nuclear weapon tests in the atmosphere (Rissanen & Rahola 1990). However, a much more serious drawback for reindeer husbandry was the Chernobyl disaster in 1986 particularly in Sweden and southern Norway (see Rehbinder et ai. 1990). In Sweden, tens of thousands of reindeer carcasses with high 137 cesium concentration were destroyed, and reindeer were shifted to uncontaminated ranges. Additionally, several methods of decreasing l37 cesium concentrations were developed (Ähman 1993). In Sweden, reindeer meat exceeding 1500 Bq l37 cesium/kg is not considered to be safe for con sumption. The mean value of the meat offered for sale is 500 Bq/kg. If the weekly consumption of such meat is less than 3 kg, one does not risk exceed ing the recommended maximum annual radiocesium dose which in Sweden is 1 mSv (Ähman 1993). Atmospheric air pollution threatens the prerequisites of reindeer husband ry in other ways, too. Many lichen species are susceptible to sulphur dioxide. Helle et al. (1990 c) reported a 50 % reduction in the biomass of arboreal Alec toria sp. and Bryoria sp. in two old spruce stands in Finnish Lapland between 1976 and 1988. The decreasing trend was noted also by Kautto et al. (1986) and Mattila (1988). Recently, Tarhanen et al. (1992) found changes in mem brane permeability and cell ultra structure in Bryoria fuscescens in the Kola peninsula and eastern Finnish Lapland. These changes increased with proxim ity the nickel smelters in the towns of Nickel and Monchegorsk in the Kola area in Russia, producing annually a total of 700,000 tons of sulphur dioxide. In the surroundings of these smelters, reindeer lichens are also affected. Tömmervik et al. (1991) reported that reindeer lichens had totally disappeared or drastically decreased in Sodre-Varanger, Norway, 30-50 km north of Nick el. In this area, the local population of semi-domesticated reindeer is decreas- 169 Reindeer husbandry and hunting ing although in other parts of Finnmark the number of reindeer has increased. In Monchegorsk, the growth rate of Cladina rangiferina (L.) Web. reaches the normal figures when 50-60 km distant from the smelters (Helle & Kojola 1992). Another potential threat is the concentration of heavy metals in rein deer. Reindeer husbandry and outdoor recreation Tourism and associated outdoor recreation activities have been, in northern Scandinavia during recent decades, the most rapidly increasing livelihood. Whereas they increase the demand for reindeer meat and souvenirs made of reindeer material, they also have negative effects on reindeer husbandry. Quantitative data on these effects are available from the Saariselkä area, in northeastern Finnish Lapland. Finland's biggest holiday resort is situated on the western edge of the area. It comprises 8,000 beds, and offers visitors sla lom, cross-country skiing, hiking, and other kinds of outdoor recreation. The first report on the deterioration of ground vegetation as a result of tourism ap peared in the 1970 s (Hoogesteger 1976). A few years later, Saastamoinen (1982) concluded that the most serious problem was the disturbance of rein deer by skiers and hikers, which resulted in the loss of a calving ground, which had earlier been important (Aikio 1977). Helle and Särkelä (1993) studied the spatial variation in the distribution of reindeer as a function of the distance from the holiday resort. In general, the relative reindeer densities increased when outdoor activities decreased. The disturbance effect reached about 10 km from the holiday resort. It was possible to determine the consequent range loss and its economic value. Within the "disturbance area", reindeer were not capable to graze in an optimal way in winter, i.e. to concentrate feeding on sites with abundant lichen vegetation or shallow snow. This possibly has a negative effect on the reindeer's energy balance, but quantification of the def icit appeared to be impossible. In comparison to the gross income from tourism in Saariselkä, the eco nomic value of the range loss appeared to be quite small. However, from the viewpoint of local reindeer owners the loss is not negligible. It is widely agreed that a distinction should be made between efficiency and equity, when the values of different social or cultural groups are relevant to the decision (e.g. Layard & Walters 1978). Consequently, better planning and restrictions of outdoor activities will be needed in order to minimize the harmful effects on reindeer management. 170 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 7.1 The average annual kill of forest game in 1978-1991. Sources: Denmark: Denmarks Miljøundersøgelser; Finland: Metsästäjien keskusjärjestö; Norway: Norsk Institutt for Naturfors kning; Sweden: Svenska Jägareförbundet. 7.3 Hunting Hunting statistics Hunting is one of the most popular hobbies in Scandinavia among men. The number of hunters in Norway is 160,000, Denmark 170,000, and in Finland and Sweden 300,000. Hunting is most popular in northern Scandinavia, where every third man hunts. In each country, the number of hunters has steadily increased during the last decades, but it seems to have stabilized dur- Denmark Finland Norway Sweden Mammals Red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) 900 2 000 3 600 1 400 Beaver (Castor fiber/C.canadensis ) 1 100 - 5 200 Red fox ( Vulpes vulpes) 48 800 30 600 17 400 23 200 Racoon dog(Nyctereutes procyonoides) - 54 200 - American mink ( Mustela visori) 2 800 58 600 24 600 50 000 Pine marten (Martes martes ) 4 300 10 700 9 800 15 700 Badger (Metes metes) 1 400 11 400 3 900 33 600 Hare (Lepus timidus/L. europaeus) 151 800 293 600 119 300 179 400 Fallow deer (Dama dama) 3 300 20 - 2 800 Red deer (Cervus elaphus) 1 840 - 10 100 600 Sika deer (Cervus nippon) 380 - - - White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) 6 500 - Moose (Alces alces) 48 700 27 400 130 400 Wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) - - 8 600 - Roe deer (Capreolus capreotus) 66 200 3 29 000 197 000 Birds Willow grouse (Lagopus lagopus) - 77 200 522 000 39 500 Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) - 42 000 22 200 33 300 Black grouse (Tetrao tetrix) - 170 000 55 500 44 400 Hazel grouze (Bonasa bonasia) 95 600 9 300 24 100 Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) 802 400 9 100 - 14 100 Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) 23 800 3 500 8 000 30 000 Woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) 310 200 88 200 78 600 90 400 171 Reindeer husbandry and hunting ing recent years. Public attitudes towards hunting are still quite liberal com pared to many other European countries. One reason may be that in most parts of Scandinavia hunting has been traditionally a livelihood or hobby of the ordinary countryside people. On the other hand, one should be aware that hunting legislation has developed all the time into being more prohibitive or restricting to hunting methods, as criticism has been voiced among non hunters. An English-speaking reader can receive an excellent overall picture of Scandinavian hunting from the book "Swedish Game - Biology and Man agement" (Svenska Jägareförbundet 1992). Differences in the climate, proportion of forest land, tree species compo sition etc. between different parts of Fennoscandia are reflected in the abun dance of different game species and the structure of the bag as well. Bag statistics for Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden from recent years are given in Table 7.1. In earlier times, Fennoscandia was famous for its rich sources of high qual ity furs. Excessive hunting caused extinction of the beaver (Castor fiber L.) (which has been later re-introduced), and reduced the number of pine marten (.Martes martes L.), for instance. Economically the most important species was red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris L.); the maximum bags in this century ranged, in Finland and Sweden, between 1-2 million individuals annually. The crash in fur prices in the 1960 s almost wholly put an end to traditional professional or half-professional fur hunting. At present, trapping and hunting of red fox ('Vulpes vulpes L.), badger (Meles meles L.), racoon dog ( Nyctereutes procya noides Gray) and pine marten are carried out for game management purposes. Large predators are protected, or their hunting is strictly limited. The Danish game habitats with field, bush and forest mosaic are highly productive. The annual kill of hare (in Denmark only the brown hare (Lepus europaeus Pall.) is of the same magnitude as in Sweden, and bags of red fox, pheasant (Phasianus colchicus L.), wood pigeon (Columba palumbus L.), and woodcock (Scolopax rusticola L.) are even numerically highest of all the Nor dic countries. Rather similar game habitats are to be found in southernmost Sweden. In the taiga zone game production is generally lower, but the species diversity higher. The importance of ungulates is strongly emphasized both nu merically and as meat production (Mattsson & Kriström 1987, Mattsson 1989, 1994). Hunting of forest grouse seems to be most popular in Finland, where bags of black grouse and hazel grouse are four times larger than in Sweden. The "case" of moose Moose is the most important game species in Sweden both in terms of meat value and the recreational value of hunting (Mattsson 1994). The same applies to the most part of the Fennoscandian taiga forest area. The trends in the population dynamics reflected in the number of harvested animals have 172 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries been quite similar in Finland, Norway and Sweden (Figure 7.4). Moose were close to extinction in wide areas in each country at the beginning of the 20th century. The main reason for that was excessive hunting. Due to strict hunting regulations, the number of moose began to increase, and its density peaked in Finland and Sweden in the 1980 s. In Sweden, "the land of moose", the sum mer herd comprised during the peak years about 300,000 animals, from which about 150,000 are killed during the hunting season in autumn. These figures were about three-fold compared to Finland, and the status of moose in Sweden is also unique in a world wide comparison (Danell 1989). Moose is in the focus of several and partly contradictory interests. Moose hunters prefer, understandably, relatively high moose density. However, it seems to be self-evident that the goal of moose management can not be eco logically determined maximum sustained yield. Such a policy neglects the negative consequences of moose, including damage to forestry and agricul ture, as well as the costs of traffic accidents. A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis has never been carried out. The benefits can be determined quite reli ably (Mattsson & Kriström 1987), whilst accurate data on damage are not available. The present moose densities in Sweden and Finland are a compro mise between various interest groups and are lower than during the peak years in the 1980 s (Figure 7.4). The increase in moose density has been related, besides to hunting restric tions and manipulation of the herd structure, to improved food availability (Ahlen 1975, Myrberget 1979, Nygren & Pesonen 1989). In the absence of large predators, moose density is determined by winter food, comprising de ciduous trees and young Scots pines. In forest renovation, original mixed stands have commonly been replaced by Scots pine, and the associated clear cutting has increased the amount of deciduous trees, too. Drainage has had, similarly, a positive effect on food availability (Lykke 1964). Thirdly, Ahlen (1975) mentioned that previously most of the domestic animals grazed in for ests in the summer using largely the same food, except for pine seedlings, as moose in winter. Because the most intense period, both in forest renovation by clearcutting and in drainage, is over, one may predict that food resources of moose will decline in the future. This may be counterbalanced by new man agement orders giving space to deciduous trees. Whereas moose likely have benefited from modern forestry, they are at the same time the greatest single damaging agent in forests. The first reports on moose damage to forestry appeared in the late 1 800 s, being associated with the increasing economic value of wood (see Lavsund 1987). Palo (1981) estimat ed that one moose uses twigs from 5,000 pine seedlings per year, and needs about 20 hectares of young stand in order to meet its energy requirement from year to year. If this area/year is smaller, the proportion of severely damaged seedlings begins to increase due to the resultant more intense browsing (Lavsund 1987). 173 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Figure 7.4 Annual moose harvest in Finland, Norway and Sweden in 1964-90. Sources: Fin land: Nygren and Pesonen 1989, 1993; Norway: Norsk Institutt For Naturforskning; Sweden: Swedish game... 1992. Moose cause damage in young stands of Scots pine and silver birch (Bet ula pendula Roth), and to a lesser extent in young stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies L.). The most common type of damage is breakage of twigs and leader shoots. In another type of damage, moose break the main stem of seed lings 2-A m in height. The frequency of stem breakage is commonly quite low, but it increases if the availability of twigs is reduced by intense browsing (Hjeljord & Fjellbakk 1982, Lavsund 1987, Heikkilä & Mikkonen 1992). The effects of moose damage on growth and survival of pine seedlings vary with browsing intensity and soil fertility. A reduction of 75-95 % in the green parts will kill the seedlings (Hjeljord & Fjellbakk 1982, Bergström et ai. 1983). Occasional heavy browsing has only a minor effect on the growth (Löyttyniemi 1983, Heikkilä & Löyttyniemi 1992), while repeated browsing may involve a complete cessation of growth (Lavsund 1987). It is a common finding that the detrimental effects of damage are most pronounced on poor soils. That is likely to be associated with nutritional deficiencies weakening compensatory growth, and such seedlings are thus subjected longer to repeated browsing (Danell 1989). Much of the research on the habitat and food selection of moose has been stimulated by the idea of reducing the damage risk by silvicultural measures. The final goal might be the finding of poorly palatable progeny origins of for- 174 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries est trees to be planted in areas with a high damage risk. A lot of theoretical and empirical work on qualitative and quantitative aspects of food selection has been carried out (e.g. Löyttyniemi 1981, Haukioja et ai. 1983, Danell & Eric sson 1986, Bergström & Danell 1987, Palo 1987, Danell et ai. 1991 a, 1991 b). Clear differences in palatability between progeny origins of Scots pine have been reported (Niemelä et ai. 1989), but practical applications are still lacking. One of the most debated questions deals with the effect of cleaning, i.e. do de ciduous trees in a pine plantation increase or decrease the damage risk of pine seedlings? Under given circumstances, moose browse only on the most pre ferred aspen (Populus tremula L.) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia L.) but leave pines untouched. The resultant retarded growth of the most preferred species (Heikkilä 1991) gives an advantage to pine in inter-species competition and is reflected also in the growth of pines (Lavsund 1987). Otherwise, the results on the effects of cleaning are variable. In some areas, high incidence of deciduous trees increases the damage risk (Westman 1958, Olsen &de Vibe 1981), while in some others no correlation has been found (Lykke 1964, Löyttyniemi & Pii silä 1983, Danell et ai. 1991 a, Heikkilä 1991). A relatively high damage risk was found in stands with high birch density and clear overgrowth of pine (Heikkilä 1993). Similarly, the results on the effect of stand density are somewhat conflict ing. Lavsund (1987) did not find any difference in the damage frequency be tween sparse and dense young stands. In a Finnish study, the number of twigs and twig biomass browsed by moose increased with stand density, but despite that the number of untouched seedlings was higher in dense stands (Heikkilä & Mikkonen 1992). Improvement of habitat quality has been considered as one possible meas ure to reduce damage risk (Bergström & Hjeljord 1987). Lääperi (1990) estab lished high quality feeding sites for moose in order to keep them away from seedling stands. In these feeding sites, deciduous trees were fertilized, and mineral licks as well as tops of aspen and pine were available for moose. Com pared to adjacent control areas the feeding sites appeared highly preferred. However, the reduction in damage remained unclear, probably because the distance between established feeding sites and young stands was too short. These various measures aimed at reducing damage risk have appeared rel atively ineffective due to the close relationship between moose density and damage risk. Therefore, various kinds of repellents may be the only way to keep moose away from young stands. The main problem with chemical repel lents is that the treatment should be repeated annually for 5-10 years, which makes the method expensive. That is why these can be recommended only for restricted areas with a high damage risk (Lavsund 1987). Fencing of the regen eration area is effective, but expensive, too. Finally, the "moose question" can also be considered from a wider ecolog ical point of view. In Sweden, Angelstam (1990 a) related the conservation problems of woodpeckers to super-normal moose density. Where large pred- 175 Reindeer husbandry and hunting ators are present, moose densities range between 0.1-0.4 individuals/km 2 , whilst in Sweden their number is about 10 fold. In future, mature aspen will disappear due to long-lasting intense browsing of young trees. This results in a lack of nesting trees for woodpeckers, and is reflected also in the amount of birds using nesting holes made by woodpeckers. Grouse habitats and forestry The decreasing number of grouse has been documented in all Scandinavian countries. The decline of capercaillie has been the most drastic (Marcström 1979, Järvinen & Väisänen 1984, Linden 1981, Rolstad & Wegge 1987). The causes underlying these decreasing trends may be various, but striking simi larities in declines between different species and countries suggest that the causes may be the same. Is shooting one of these causes? In Finland that is quite a common public opinion. Indeed, evidence exists that overharvesting was apparent in northern Finland in the late 19705; annual yields increased, despite the declining phase in the cyclically fluctuating grouse populations. This probably slowed the expected population increase after "poor" years (Linden 1981, 1991 a, Linden & Raijas 1986). Another study showed that an extremely high harvesting rate affected both capercaillie and black grouse but not hazel grouse (Linden & Sorvoja 1992). On the other hand, Linden (1981) found that capercaillie populations censused in southern Finland declined despite protection from shooting for nine years. Thus, one may conclude that shooting is not the principal cause for decreasing population trends even in Finland, where shooting yields are essentially larger than in Sweden, for instance (see Table 7.1). Grouse habitats have traditionally been described by means of stand char acteristics (e.g. Pynnönen 1954, Seiskari 1962, Uusvaara 1963, Marcström et ai. 1983, Winqvist 1983). From the 1970 s onwards, increasing attention has been paid to the effects of forestry on grouse habitats. However, identification and quantification of these effects have appeared to be a difficult task, and ex planations of the ultimate causes of the decline of grouse populations are still variable or even contradictory. Abundance of winter food has been proposed as an important factor con trolling the densities of many birds. The winter diet of grouse species com monly contains only one food species. Capercaillie is specialized in the needles of Scots pine, whilst black grouse and hazel grouse feed in winter mainly on catkins and buds from birch (Betula sp.) and alder (Alnus sp.), re spectively. Pulliainen (1979) and Linden (1984) reported that capercaillie prefer nee dles with high nitrogen and energy, but low resin contents. Hunters from the old days knew that capercaillie likely fed on needles of pines damaged by a forest fire (Virkkula 1928). However, the assumption that present forests do 176 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries not provide sufficiently high quality food is hardly plausible (Rolstad 1989, Angelstam 1990 b). The earlier abundance of black grouse in Finland and Sweden has been re lated to shifting cultivation increasing the area of birch forests (Seiskari 1962, Angelstam 1983). Since the 19605, the area and volume of birch forests in Fin land has decreased in some districts and increased in some others. However, these changes can not explain the recent decline in black grouse populations (Helle, P. & Helle, T. 1991). Hazel grouse seems to be the only grouse species whose present abun dance is clearly related to the amount of winter food. Swenson (1993) found in Sweden and Finland that alder had a positive effect on hazel grouse at var ious levels of the scale, including the feeding site, territory, landscape and re gion. The result is understandable, because the winter food resources of hazel grouse are much smaller than those of capercaillie and black grouse. In Fin land, for instance, the proportion (by area) of alder dominated forests is only 0.5 % compared to 62 % for Scots pine and 7 % for birch (Yearbook of forest statistics... 1992). By volume the difference is much greater, due to the small size of a single alder tree. Deciduous trees are commonly most abundant in young forests, which likely explains why both hazel grouse and black grouse prefer relatively young forests. Winqvist and Ringaby (1989) suggested that the abundance of grouse in central Sweden at the beginning of this century was related to the high pro portion of young forests, and the decline is a result of the maturation of these forests. Hazel grouse apparently benefited from shifting cultivation and in par ticular from the associated livestock grazing in the forests; domestic animals consumed other deciduous trees, but left alder untouched. However, it remains unclear whether alder has also decreased during recent decades. Most of the recent capercaillie researchers have concentrated on lekking behaviour and its relation to forest characteristics. Capercaillies have a social lek, and the place is commonly used for several decades (Hjort 1970, Valkea järvi & Ijäs 1986, Wegge & Larsen 1987). The lekking places are located most commonly in mature forests dominated by Scots pine or spruce. Winqvist (1983) described the forest characteristics of 100 capercaillie lekking places in Sweden, and considered that they did not deviate from average forests. The forest characteristics between the lek centres and random points were com pared in Finnish Lapland in the 1950 s and 1980 s (Helle, P. et al. 1994). In both cases, most leks existed in forests more than 150 years old. In the 19505, be fore the time of intense forest renovation, such forests were abundantly avail able, and no difference was found between lekking centres and random points. By the late 1980 s, the proportion of old forests had drastically decreased, re sulting in a clear difference in forest age between lekking centres and random points. 177 Reindeer husbandry and hunting The number of capercaillie cocks participating in the lek is related to the patch size pattern of mature forests. The daytime territories of the cocks are located around the lekking centre like "pieces of cake", each of them with an area of 0.15 km 2 (Rolstad & Wegge 1987). The mean size of "forest island" having a capercaillie lek amounts to about 0.6 km 2 (Angelstam 1983, Rolstad & Wegge 1987, Linden & Pasanen 1987). The greater the proportion of ma ture forests around the lek centre, the more cocks can participate in the lek (Wegge & Rolstad 1986, Rolstad & Wegge 1987, Hjort 1990). These studies on radio tracked cocks showed that the maximum distance of a daytime terri tory from the lek centre is about 1 km. That is in agreement with the finding that the proportion of mature forest as well as the forest age remained on quite a high level up to 1 km from the lek centre (Linden & Pasanen 1987, Helle, P. et ai. 1994). Consequently, the minimum distance between two leks is in an optimal situation about 2 km (Hjort 1982, Wegge & Larsen 1987). On the oth er hand, if the area of mature forest is less than 0.5 km 2 , and isolated by more than 100-200 m from other forests, it does not support lekking males (Angel stam 1983, Rolstad & Wegge 1987). Advice for preservation and management of lekking sites is given in several papers (Rolstad 1989 b, Rolstad & Wegge 1989 a, 1989 b, Valkeajärvi & Ijäs 1991). Besides lekking sites, the home range of capercaillie consists of several other seasonal ranges (Wegge & Larsen 1987, Rolstad 1989 a, Hjort 1990, Helle, P. et ai. 1994). Finnish lekking site studies have revealed that some for est characteristics, such as the proportion of forest land or old forests, exceed ed the average figures up to 4 km from the lekking centre (Linden & Pasanen 1987, Helle, P. et ai. 1994), i.e. clearly outside the actual lekking sites. This may indicate that lekking sites are located in remote and large, uniform forest areas, providing all seasonal ranges for the local capercaillie population. These special requirements may explain why capercaillie populations in southern Finland decline, although the total area of more than 90 years old forests has increased during recent decades (Helle, P. & Helle, T. 1991). Even relatively small clearcutting can wholly destroy a hazel grouse terri tory or a lekking area of capercaillie. The birds are forced to move elsewhere, probably to habitats of lower quality. However, the essential process behind the changes in forest landscape is fragmentation (see Angelstam 1990 a). At present, agricultural fields, settlements, clearcuts and other human activities commonly isolate large forest areas from each other. If a local population be comes extinct for some reason, the area does not get recruits from outside, and therefore it remains unpopulated (e.g. Fritz 1979). Fragmentation also has other effects possibly contributing to the decline of grouse populations. It increases the amount of forest edges, and this is likely to increase predation pressure (Andren et ai. 1985, Angelstam 1986, Rolstad 1989 a). Another hypothesis suggests that clearcutting also increases the number of predators. Hansson (1979) showed that clearcutting produces, ex cept on dry sites, grass- and herb-rich areas, which in turn increase the amount 178 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries of voles. Reforestation of old fields has a similar effect. Henttonen (1989) pointed out that on clearcut areas, field vole (Microtus agrestis L.) replaces the red-backed vole (Cletrionomys glareolus Schreb.), which is adapted to for ests. Field voles are, in contrast to "forest voles", non-territorial and social, making high densities possible. Increased vole density is assumed to sustain high densities of small and medium size predators, whose predation is partly directed to ground nesting birds (Storaas & Wegge 1985, Henttonen 1989, Rolstad & Wegge 1989 c). Another "school" considers that, for many preda tors, birds are alternative food to voles, and therefore predation of birds may be most intense after a crash in cyclically fluctuating vole populations (Angel stam et ai. 1984 b, Marcström el al. 1988). Linden (1988, 1992) did not find such relationships from extensive Finnish survey data, but he did concede the possibility that predators affect prey populations. Storaas and Wegge (1985) argue that nest losses of capercaillie and black grouse have increased during recent decades. Nest losses have not been related to stand structure at the actual site. Instead, the general predation pressure should be considered at the landscape level, because of the movements of predators (Storaas & Wegge 1987). Indeed, Rolstad and Wegge (1989 c) found in Norway that in the present forests, no part of the landscape was situated more than 1.5 km away from an abundant food resource of the red fox, whose radius of movement is just of the same longitude (Figure 7.5). In addition to favorable vole habitats, sites where moose had been slaughtered and garbage dumps were considered as rich food resources for the fox. Forest fires have been an integral part of the dynamics of boreal forests. Therefore, one may assume that grouse have adapted to forest fires and black grouse and hazel grouse, at least, have benefited from them, because the post fire succession is characterized by deciduous trees. Why then have grouse not apparently adapted to clearcuttings, although their effects are, at first glance, rather similar to those of forest fires? One possible answer is associated with the predator regimen. Pine forests on dry sites experienced a forest fire in 80- 100 years intervals (Zackrisson 1977), while the fire interval for spruce forests on fresher sites varied between 150—450 years (Haapanen & Siitonen 1978, Hyvärinen & Sepponen 1988). Therefore, grass-rich openings typical to fresh sites were, in natural conditions, quite rare, compared to the present situation. Additionally, there are also obvious differences in plant succession between a burned area and clearcutting. In his studies on prescribed burning. Viro (1970) found on fresh sites in southern Finland that grasses were maximally 2.5 times and herbs 5 times as abundant as on an unburned area. However, the most abundant species, Calamagrostis sp. and Epilobium angustifolium L. have only minor importance in the winter diet of voles. Other soil treatments asso ciated with clearcutting, for example, ploughing, harrowing and scalping, leave more of the original vegetation, and commonly create a flush of common hair grass, which altogether may provide for voles more abundant winter food resources than burned areas. 179 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Figure 7.5 A sketch map on the distribution of capercaillie leks in relation to rich food sources of small and medium-size predators. Varaldskogen, Norway (Rolstad & Wegge 1989c). 7.4 Reindeer and game in forest planning The forest planning systems applied to practical forestry have been based almost exclusively on timber production. In the 1980 s, some trials were car ried out to study the economic consequences when rotation time was 180 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries increased in order to improve the quality of reindeer's winter ranges (Matts son 1987, Varmola 1988). In both cases, the costs to timber production appeared so high that the "reindeer models" were considered at that time unrealistic from the viewpoint of timber production. However, this does not mean that reindeer husbandry and game manage ment have wholly been neglected in forest planning. For instance, the Finnish Forest and Park Service presents cutting plans in good time beforehand to lo cal herding associations. Similar cooperation also exists in Sweden. Areas in cutting order can then be used intensively as reindeer ranges. It is also possible to alter the cutting order; reindeer owners require, for instance, that forests rich in arboreal lichens should be cut in late winter during the time of food shortage (Saastamoinen 1980). Negotiations are mostly informative, and it is the land owner who makes the final decision. Many foresters are hunters themselves and thus interested in conserving and improving game habitats. On a small scale this has also been possible. In tensive forest renovation employing clearcutting has required more effective measures; first, recommendations on habitat management appeared in forest management directions in the 19705. However, it is still a long way from those recommendations and orders to forest planning which routinely incorporates management of reindeer ranges and game habitats. Planning of multiple-use forestry is faced at present with new opportuni ties. The shift from underproduction to overproduction of timber creates more space for other use forms, including reindeer ranges and game habitats. Re cently, planning methods have been developed for taking the preferences of the decision maker more accurately into account (e.g. Kangas 1992). In the case of reindeer husbandry and game management, the basic problem con cerns the lack of production functions and other evaluation models. However, the first steps have already been taken in Kangas et ai. (1993) where wildlife expertise was used to incorporate the habitat preferences of black grouse into forest planning. References Aaltonen, V.T. 1919. Über die naturliche Verjungung der Heidewälder im Finnischen Lappland I. Communicationes ex Instituto Quaestionum Forestalium Finland iae Editae 1. 412 pp. Ahlen, 1. 1975. Winter habitats of moose and deer in relation to land use in Scandina via. Viltrevy 9(3): 45-192. Ahman, B. 1993. Vägar vi äta renskött efter Tjernobylolyckan? (Do we dare to eat reindeer meat after Tjernobyl accident?) Veterinärmedicin 5/1993. 4 pp. (In Swedish.) Aikio, P. 1977. Saamelaisen ekosysteemin murtuminen Lapin paliskunnassa. Sum mary: Collapse of the Lapponian ecosystem in Lapin paliskunta. Suomen Luonto 36(2): 72-77. 181 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Andren, H., Angelstam, P., Lindström, E. & Widen, P. 1985. Differences in predation pressure in relation to habitat fragmentation: an experiment. Oikos 45: 273- 277. Angelstam, P. 1983. Population dynamics of tetraonids, especially the black grouse, in boreal forest. Abstracts of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Sci ence 675. 33 pp. Angelstam, P. 1986. Predation on ground nesting birds' nests in relation to predator densities and habitat edge. Oikos 47: 365-373. Angelstam, P. 1990 a. Factors determining the composition and persistency of local woodpecker assemblages in taiga forest in Sweden: a case for landscape eco logical studies. In: Carlson, A. & Aulen, G. (eds.). Conservation and manage ment of woodpecker populations. Swedish University of Agricultural Sci ences, Department of Wildlife Ecology, Report 17: 147-164. Angelstam, P. 1990 b. Effects of modern forestry on the capercaillie: preserving the display arenas is not enough! In: Carlson, A. (ed.). The capercaillie and for estry. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Wildlife Ecology, Report 15: 51-62, 67-68. (In Swedish with English summary.) Angelstam, P., Lindström, E. & Widen, P. 1984. Role of predation in short-term pop ulation fluctuations of some birds and mammals in Fennoscandia. Oecologia 62: 199-208. Arnborg, T. 1955. Skador pä tallplantor inom ett starkt renbetat omräde i Hede socken. (Damages in pine seedlings in an intensively used reindeer pasture in the community of Hede.) Norrlands Skogvärdsförbunds Tidskrift 25: 363- 387. (In Swedish.) Bergan, J. 1962. Reinskader pä den naturlige gjenvekst av furu i Pasvik. (Damages caused by reindeer in the naturally born seedling stands of pine in Pasvik.) Tidsskrift for Skogbruk 70(3): 175-193. (In Norwegian.) Bergström, R. & Danell, K. 1987. Moose winter feeding in relation to morphology and chemistry of six tree species. Alces 22: 91-112. Bergström, R., Lavsund, S., Sandegren, F. & Stälfelt, F. 1983. Furndalsprojektet. (Furndals project.) Umeä. 80 pp. (In Swedish.) Bjärvall, A., Franzen, R., Nordkvist, M. & Ahman, G. 1990. Renar och rovdjur. (Reindeer and predators.) Naturvärdsverket Förlag, Tryckindustri, Solna. 296 pp. (In Swedish.) Brown, T. & Mikola, P. 1974. The influence of fruticose soil lichens upon the mycor rhizae and seedling growth of forest trees. Acta Forestalia Fennica 141. 23 pp. Caughley, G. 1976. Wildlife management and the dynamics of ungulate populations. In: Coaker, T.H. (ed.). Applied biology, vol. 1. Academic Press, London. 183 pp. Danell, K. 1989. Älgskador värt största skogsskyddsproblem f.n. I. Algens ska degörelse i tallbeständ: den biologiska bakgrunden. Summary: Moose brows ing on pines. I. The biological background. Kungl. Skogs- och Lantbruk sakademiens Tidskrift 128(2): 105-109. Danell, K., Edenius, L. & Lundberg, P. 1991 a. Herbivory and tree stand composition: Moose patch use in winter. Ecology 72: 1350-1357. Danell, K. & Ericsson, L. 1986. Foraging by moose on two species of birch when these occur in different proportions. 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Summer weight of rendeer (Rangifer tarandus) calves and its importance for their future survival. Reports from Kevo Subarc tic Research Station 14: 14. Heikkilä, R. 1991. Moose browsing in a Scots pine plantation mixed with deciduous tree species. Acta Forestalia Fennica 224. 13 pp. Heikkilä, R. 1993. Ravinnon määrän ja puulajikoostumuksen vaikutus hirven ravin nonkäyttöön ja taimituhoihin mäntytaimikoissa. Summary: The effect of food quantity and tree species composition on moose (Alces alces) browsing in Scots pine plantations. Folia Forestalia 815. 18 pp. Heikkilä, R. & Löyttyniemi, K. 1992. Growth response of young Scots pines to artifi cial shoot breaking simulating moose damage. Silva Fennica 26(1): 19-26. Heikkilä, R. & Mikkonen, T. 1992. Effects of density of young Scots pine (Pinus syl vestris) stand on moose (Alces alces) browsing. Acta Forestalia Fennica 231. 14 pp. Heikura, K. Lindgren, E., Pulliainen, E., Sulkava, S. & Erkinaro, E. 1983. 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Effects of winter grazing by reindeer on vegetation. Oikos 40: 337-343. Helle, T., Aspi, J. & Kilpelä, S.-S. 1990 a. The effects of stand characteristics on rein deer lichens and range use by semi-domesticated reindeer. Rangifer, Special Issue 3: 107-114. Helle, T., Kilpelä, S.-S. & Aikio, R 1990 b. Lichen ranges, animal densities and pro duction in Finnish reindeer management. In: Rehbinder, C., Eriksson, O. & Skjenneberg, S. (eds.). Proceedings of the sth International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium. Rangifer, Special Issue 3: 115-121. Helle, T., & Kojola, I. 1992. Harmaaporonjäkälän kasvunvaihtelu Itä-Fennoskandi assa. Summary: The variation in the growth rate of Cladonia rangiferina in eastern Fennoscandia. In: Kauhanen, H. & Varmola, M. (eds.). Itä-Lapin met sävaurioprojektin väliraportti. (The Lapland Forest Damage Project Interim Report.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 413: 106-114. Helle, T. & Kojola, I. 1993. 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The effect of outdoor recreation on range use by semi domesticated reindeer. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 8: 123-133. Henttonen, H. 1989. Metsien rakenteen muutoksen vaikutuksesta myyräkantoihin ja sitä kautta pikkupetoihin ja kanalintuihin - hypoteesi. Summary: Does an increase in the rodent and predator density, resulting from modern forestry, contribute to the long-term decline in Finnish tetraonids? Suomen Riista 35: 83-90. Hjeljord, O. & Fjellbakk, A. 1982. Taksering av elgskader pä skog: en metodevurder ing. (The inventory of damages caused by moose in forest: method evalua tion.) NF rapport 2/85. 55 pp. (In Norwegian.) 184 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Hjort, I. 1970. Reproductive behavior in Tetraonids. Viltrevy 7(4). Hjort, I. 1982. Attributes of capercaillie display grounds and the influence of forestry. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Grouse, p. 26-33. Hjort, I. 1990. Relationship between the qualities of the capercaillie display arena and the recruitment area. In: Carlson, A. (ed.). The capercaillie and forestry. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Wildlife Ecol ogy, Report 15: 25-38. (In Swedish with English summary.) Hoogesteger, M. 1976. Changes in vegetation around the refuge huts in Koilliskaira forest area. Silva Fennica 10(1): 40-53. Hytönen, M. 1995. History, evolution and significance of multiple-use concept. In: Hytönen, M. (ed.). Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries. The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki, p. 43-66. Hyvärinen, V. & Sepponen, R 1988. Kivalon alueen paksusammalkuusikoiden puu laji- ja metsäpalohistoriaa. Summary: Tree species history and local forest fires in the Kivalo area of northern Finland. Folia Forestalia 720. 26 pp. Ingold, T. 1980. Hunters, pastoralists and ranchers. Cambridge University Press. 326 pp. Itkonen, T. 1948. Suomen lappalaiset vuoteen 1945. Osa 11. (The Lapps in Finland before 1945. Part II.) Porvoo-Helsinki. 629 pp. (In Finnish.) Järvinen, 0., Kuusela, K. & Väisänen, R.A. 1977. Metsien rakenteenmuutoksen vaikutus pesimälinnustoomme viimeisten 30 vuoden aikana. Summary: Effects of modem forestry on the numbers of breeding birds in Finland 1945- 1975. Silva Fennica 11: 284-294. Järvinen, O. & Väisänen, R.A. 1984. Metson, teeren ja pyyn pesimäaikainen kanta Suomessa 1973-77. Summary: Numbers of breeding capercaillie, black grouse and hazel grouse in Finland in 1973-77. Suomen Riista 31: 61-73. Kangas, J. 1992. Multiple-use planning of forest resources by using the analytic hier archy process. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 7: 259-268. Kangas, J., Karsikko, J., Laasonen, L. & Pukkala, T. 1993. A method for estimating the suitability function of wildlife habitat for forest planning on the basis of expertise. Silva Fennica 27(4): 259-268. Kärenlampi, L. 1973. Suomen poronhoitoalueen jäkälämai den kunto, jäkälämäärät ja tuottoarvot vuonna 1972. (The condition of lichen ranges, the amount of lichen and production values in the reindeer herding area in Finland in 1972.) Poromies 40(2): 15-19. (In Finnish.) Kautto, A., Kärenlampi, L. & Nieminen, M. 1986. Jäkäläisten talvilaidunten kunnon muutos Suomen poronhoitoalueella. (The change in condition of the lichen rich winter ranges in the reindeer herding area in Finland.) Poromies 53(3): 28-34. (In Finnish.) Kershaw, K. 1985. Physiological ecology of lichens. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 283 pp. Kershaw, K.A. & Field, G.-F. 1975. Studies on lichen dominated systems. XV. The temperature and humidity profiles in a Cladonia alpestris mat. Canadian Jour nal of Botany 53: 2614—2620. Kojola, I. 1993. Peura ja poroistutusten ekologiaa. Summary: Ecology of reindeer introductions. Suomen Riista 39:74-84. 185 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Kojola, I. & Helle, T. 1991. Productivity of semi-domesticated reindeer in Finland. Rangifer 11: 53-63. Kollström, R.E.S. 1988. Reindeer husbandry and forestry in Pasvik. Conflicts caused by common land use. Ökoforsk rapport 10: 1-34. (In Norwegian with English summary.) Lääperi, A. 1990. Hoidettujen talvilaitumien vaikutus hirvituhoihin mäntytaimi koissa. Summary: Effects of winter feeding on moose damage to young pine stands. Acta Forestalia Fennica 212. 46 pp. Lavsund, S. 1987. Moose relationships to forestry in Finland, Norway and Sweden. Swedish Wildlife Research, Suppl., part 1: 229-244. Layard, PR. & Walters, A.A. 1978. Microeconomic theory. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. 498 pp. Lenvik, D. 1988. Utvalgsstrategi i reinflokken. (Selection strategy in a reindeer herd.) Reindriftadministrasjonen, Alta. 26 pp. (In Norwegian.) Linden, H. 1981. Hunting and tetraonid populations in Finland. Finnish Game Research 39: 69-78. Linden, H. 1984. The role of energy and resin contents in the selective feeding of pine needles by the capercaillie. Annales Zoologici Fennici 21: 435^439. Linden, H. 1988. Latitudinal gradients in predator-prey interactions, cyclicity and synchronism in voles and small game populations in Finland. Oikos 52: 341- 349. Linden, H. 1991 a. Patterns of grouse shooting in Finland. Ornis Scandinavica 22: 241-244. Linden, H. 1991 b. Mitä riistatiedustelut paljastavat pienriistasykleistämme? Sum mary: Analysis of game questionnaires: The validity of the alternative prey hypothesis in Finland. Suomen Riista 37: 67-78. Linden, H. & Pasanen, J. 1987. Metsien pirstoutuminen metsokantojen uhkana. Sum mary: Capercaillie leks are threatened by forest fragmentation. Suomen Riista 34: 66-76. Linden, H. & Raijas, M. 1986. Yliverotammeko metsäkanalintukantoja? Summary: Do we overharvest our grouse populations? An educated guess. Suomen Riista 33: 91-96. Linden, H. & Rajala, P. 1981. Fluctuations and long-term trends in the relative densi ties of tetraonid populations in Finland, 1964-77. Finnish Game Research 39: 13-34. Linden, H. & Sorvoja, V. 1992. Metsästyspaineen vaikutus kanalintukantoihin Suomessa: valtakunnallinen tarkastelu ja Oulaisten metsästystutkimus. Sum mary: Harvesting grouse in Finland: A detailed analysis of national statistics and an experimental harvesting study in Oulainen. Suomen Riista 38: 69-78. Löyttyniemi, K. 1983. Männyn taimen kehitys latvan katkeamisen jälkeen. Sum mary: Recovery of young Scots pines from stem breakage. Folia Forestalia 560. 11 pp. Löyttyniemi, K. & Piisilä, N. 1983. Hirvivahingot männyn viljelytaimikoissa Uuden maan-Hämeen piirimetsälautakunnan alueella. Summary: Moose (Alces alces) damage in young pine plantations in the Forestry Board District Uusi maa-Häme. Folia Forestalia 553. 23 pp. 186 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Lykke, J. 1964. Elg och skog. (Moose and forest.) Meddelelser fra Statens vil tundersokelser 2(17): 1-58. (In Norwegian.) Marcström, V. 1979. A review of the tetraonid situation in Sweden. In: Lovel, T. (ed.). Woodland Grouse Symposium, Inverness 1978. p. 13-16. Marcström, V., Brittas, R. & Engren, E. 1988. The impact of predation on boreal tetraonids during vole cycles: an experimental study. Journal of Animal Ecol ogy 57: 859-872. Marcström, V., Brittas, R., Engren, E. & Winqvist, T. 1983. Field form for descrip tion of woodland grouse habitat. Sveriges lantbruksuniversitetet, Uppsala, Sweden. Mattila, E. 1979. Kangasmaiden luppometsien ominaisuuksia Suomen poronhoitoal ueella 1976-1978. Summary: Characteristics of the mineral soil forests with arboreal lichens in the Finnish reindeer management area, 1976-1978. Folia Forestalia 417. 39 pp. Mattila, E. 1981. Survey of reindeer winter ranges as a part of the Finnish National Forest Inventory in 1976-1978. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 99(6): 1-74. Mattila, E. 1988. 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Mattsson, L. & Kriström, B. 1987. The economic value of moose as a hunting object. In: Hänninen, R. & Selby, J.A. (eds.). Proceedings of the biennial meeting of the Scandinavian Society of Forest Economics, Porvoo, Finland, May 1987. Scandinavian Forest Economics 29: 27-37. Moxness, E., Sara, A.N., Solbakken, J.I. & Stenseth, N.C. 1993. Reindrift og beiteg runnlag. En modellanalyse. (Reindeer husbandry and pastures. A model anal ysis.) Bajos, Utviklingsselskap A/S, Kautokeino. 59 pp. (In Norwegian.) Miiller-Wille, L. 1975. Changes in Lappish reindeer herding in northern Finland caused by mechanization and motorization. In: Luick, J.R., Lent, PC., Klein, D.R. & White, R.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Ist International Reindeer/Car ibou Symposium, Fairbanks 1972. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, Special Report 1: 122-126. Myrberget, S. 1979. The Norwegian moose population 1945-1977. 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(Overview of the feeding ecology of deer, with special emphasis on moose.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för viltekologi, Rapport 7. 71 pp. (In Swedish.) Palo, T. 1987. Phenols as defensive compounds in birch (Betula spp.). Implications for digestion and metabolism in browsing mammals. Dissertation. Department of Animal Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala Pelto, J. 1973. The snowmobile revolution: technology and social change in the Arc tic. Cummings Publishing Company, California. 225 pp. Pohtila, E. 1977. Reforestation of ploughed sites in Finnish Lapland. Communica tiones Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 91(4): 1-98. Pruitt, W. 0., Jr. 1960. Behaviour of the barren-ground caribou. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska 3. 44 pp. Pulliainen, E. 1979. Autumn and winter nutrition of the capercaillie (Tetrao urogal lus) in the northern Finnish taiga. In: Lovel, T. (ed.). Woodland Grouse Sym posium, Inverness 1978. p. 92-96. Pynnönen, A. 1954. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Lebenweise des Haselhuhns, Tetrastes bonasia (L.). Papers of Game Research 12. 90 pp. 188 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Raitio, H. 1990. Decline of young Scots pines in a dry heat forest. Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Series A, Scientiae Rerum Naturalium 216. 40 pp. Rehbinder, C., Edquist, L., Lundström, K. & Villafone, F. 1982. A field study of management stress in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.). Rangifer 2(2): 2-21. Rehbinder, C., Eriksson, O. & Skjenneberg, S. (eds.). 1990. Proceedings of the sth International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium. Rangifer, Special Issue 3. Reimers, E. 1986. Management of wild reindeer in Norway. In: Gunn, A., Miller, F. L. & Skjenneberg, S. (eds.). Proceedings of the 4th International Reindeer/ Caribou Symposium, Whitehorse, Canada, 1985. Rangifer, Special Issue 1: 241-246. Rissanen, K. & Rahola, T. 1990. Radiocesium in lichens and reindeer after the Cher nobil accident. Rangifer, Special Issue 3: 55-61. Roll-Hansen, F. 1975. Phacidium infestans on dwarf plants of Pinus sylvestris. Euro pean Journal of Forest Pathology 5: 1-7. Rolstad, J. 1989 a. Habitat and range use of capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus L., in south central Scandinavian boreal forests with special reference to the influence of modern forestry. Dr. Agric. thesis. Department of Nature Conservation, Agri cultural University of Norway, As. 12 pp. Rolstad, J. 1989 b. Effects of logging on capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) leks. I. Scan dinavian Journal of Forest Research 4: 99-109. Rolstad, J. & Wegge, P. 1989 a. Effects of logging on capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) leks. 11. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 4: 111-127. Rolstad, J. & Wegge, P. 1989 b. Effects of logging on capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) leks. 111. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 4: 129-135. Rolstad, J. & Wegge, P. 1987. Distribution and size of capercaillie leks in relation to old forest fragmentation. Oecologia 72: 389-394. Rolstad, J. & Wegge, P. 1989 c. Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) and modern forestry: case for landscape ecological studies. Finnish Game Research 46: 43-52. Ruong, I. 1982. Samerna. (The Sami people.) Bonniers Grafiska Industrier AB, Stockholm. 280 pp. (In Swedish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1982. Economics of multiple-use forestry in the Saariselkä forest and fell area. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 104. 102 pp. Saastamoinen, O. 1980. Cutting areas as reindeer pasturage. Communicationes Insti tuti Forestalis Fenniae 95(4): 1-28. Seiskari, P. 1962. On the winter ecology of the capercaillie, Tetrao urogallus, and the black grouse, Lyrurus tetrix, in Finland. Papers of Game Research 22. 119 pp. Semenov-Tian-Shanskii, 0.1. 1975. The status of wild reindeer in the USSR, espe cially in the Kola peninsula. In: Luick, J.R., Lent, PC., Klein, D.R. & White, R.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Ist International Reindeer/Caribou Sympo sium, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1972. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, Special Report 1: 155-161. Siivonen, I. 1975. New results on the history and taxonomy of the mountain, forest and domestic reindeer in northern Europe. In: Luick, J.R., Lent, P.C., Klein, D.R. & White, R.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Ist International Reindeer/Car ibou Symposium, Fairbanks 1972. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, Special Report 1: 33—40. 189 Reindeer husbandry and hunting Skjenneberg, S. 1989. Reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia. In: Hudson, R., Drew, K. & Baskin, L. (eds.). Wildlife production systems. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 207-222. Skogland, T. 1986. Density dependent food limitation and maximal production in wild reindeer herds. Journal of Wildlife Management 50: 314-319. Sparrevik, E. 1983. Trädlevande tagellav som renbete: kvantitativa undersökningar av nägra arter tillhörande släktena Alectoria and Bryoria. (Arborial lichens as reindeer feed: quantitative studies on a few species belonging to genera Alec toria and Bryoria.) Medd. Vaxtbiol. Inst. Uppsala 3. (In Swedish.) Staaland, H. & Nieminen, M. 1993. World reindeer herding: origin, history, distribu tion, economy. In: Proceedings of World Conference on Animal Production. Edmonton, Canada, p. 161-203. Storaas, T. & Wegge, P. 1985. High nest losses in capercaillie and black grouse in Norway. Proceedings of the 3rd International Grouse Symposium, York 1984. p. 481-498. Storaas, T. & Wegge, P. 1987. Nesting habitats and nest predation in sympatric popu lations of capercaillie and black grouse. Journal of Wildlife Management 51(1): 167-172. Sulkava, S. & Helle, T. 1975. Range ecology of domesticated reindeer in the Finnish coniferous forest area. In: Luick, J., Lent, P., Klein, D. & White, R.G. (eds.). Proceedings of the Ist International Reindeer/Caribou Symposium, Fairbanks 1972. Biological Papers of the University of Alaska, Special Report 1: 308 315. Swedish game - Biology and Management. 1992. Svenska Jägareförbundet, Uppsala. 159 pp. Swenson, J.E. 1993. The importance of alder to hazel grouse in Fennoscandian boreal forest: evidence from four levels of scale. Ecography 16(1): 36^46. Tanner, V. 1929. Antropogeografiska studier inom Petsamo-omrädet. I. Skoltarna. (Anthropogeographic studies in the Petsamo region. I. Skolts.) Fennia 49. (In Swedish.) Tarhanen, S., Oksanen, J. & Holopainen, T. 1992. Kaarnajäkälien kalvonvuototestit ja hienorakenne Kuolan päästöjen vaikutusten kuvaajina. Summary: The membrane permeability test and cell ultrastructure of epiphytic lichens as indicators of the effects of the Kola emissions. In: Kauhanen, H. & Varmola, M. (eds.). Itä-Lapin metsävaurioprojektin väliraportti. (The Lapland Forest Damage Project Interim Report.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 413: 115-127. Thorisson, S. 1980. Status of Rangifer in Iceland. In: Reimers, E., Gaare, E. & Skjen neberg, S. (eds.). Proceedings of the 2nd International Reindeer/Caribou Sym posium, Roros, Norway, 1979. Part B: 766-770. Direktoratet for vilt og fer skvannfisk, Trondheim. Tömmervik, H.A., Johansen, B.E. & Pedersen, J.P. 1991. Mapping the air pollution impact on the natural environment in the border area of Norway/USSR using satellite remote sensing method. In: Putkonen, J. (ed.). 11th annual interna tional geoscience & remote sensing symposium 1: 45—48. Utsi, P.M. 1992. Renar och betning. (Reindeer and grazing.) WWFs Renbeteskonfer ens, Umeä. Världsnaturfonden. p. 14-20. (In Swedish.) 190 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Uusvaara, O. 1963. Pyyn elinympäristön metsikkörakenteesta. Summary: The struc ture of the habitats of hazel grouse, Tetrastes bonasia. Suomen Riista 16: 31— 45. Valkeajärvi, P. & Ijäs, L. 1986. Metson soidinpaikkavaatimukset Keski-Suomessa. Summary: On the display ground requirements of capercaillie in central Fin land. Suomen Riista 33: 5-18. Valkeajärvi, P. & Ijäs, L. 1991. Soidinkeskusten hakkuun vaikutuksista metson soiti meen. Summary: The impact of clearcutting on a capercaillie lek centre. Suomen Riista 37: 44-55. Varmola, M. (ed.). 1988. Lapin metsä 2000 -ohjelma. (Forest 2000 -program for Lapland.) Lapin lääninhallitus, Rovaniemi. 146 pp. (In Finnish.) Virkkula, E. 1928. Valkoinen erämaa. (White wilderness.) WSOY, Porvoo/Helsinki. 176 pp. (In Finnish.) Viro, P. 1970. Prescribed burning in forestry. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 67(7): I^l9. Varren, Ö. 1973. Some trends in transition from hunting to nomadic economy. In: Berg, G. (ed.). Circumpolar problems. Wenner-Gren Center International Symposium Series, vol. 21: 185-194. Stockholm. Wegge, P. & Larsen, B. 1987. Spacing of adult and subadult male common capercail lie during the breeding season. The Auk 104: 481 —490. Wegge, P. & Rolstad, J. 1986. Size and spacing of capercaillie leks in relation to social behaviour and habitat. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 14: 401- 408. Westman, H. 1958. Älgens skadegörelse pä ungskogen. (The damages caused by moose in young forest stands.) Kungl. skogshögskolans skrifter 28: 1-148. (In Swedish.) Winquist, T. 1983. 100 tjäderspelplatser. Summary: 100 capercaillie courtship dis play grounds. Sveriges Skogsvärdsförbunds Tidskrift 81(2): 5-25. Winqvist, T. & Ringaby, E. 1989. Skogshönsen och skogsbeständ av olika alder. Summary: How do grouse utilize forests of different age. Sveriges Skogs värdsförbunds Tidskrift. 2: 39-48. Wretlind, J. E. 1931. Bidrag till belysande av föryngringsbetingelserna pä Övre Norr lands tallhedsmarker. (Contribution to clarify the prerequisites of regeneration in the pine forests of Norrland.) Norrlands Skogsförbunds Tidskrift 18: 263- 314. (In Swedish.) Yearbook of forest statistics 1990-91 (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja 1990-91). 1992. Folia Forestalia 790. 281 pp. Zackrisson, O. 1977. Influence of forest fires in the North West Swedish boreal for est. Oikos 29: 5-10. 191 Fauna and flora management in forestry 8 Fauna and flora management in forestry Kjell Sjöberg 1 Tommy Lennartsson 2 Abstract Many species are threatened by forestry activities in the Nordic countries. This has led to the development of silvicultural methods to meet the demands for maintaining biological diversity. There are differences in biodiversity of forests between the Nordic countries depending on the history of land use; the amount of plantations of exotic species is much bigger in Iceland and Den mark than in Norway, Sweden and Finland. The goals and methods of pro tecting biodiversity are different in areas where forests are still intact, in man aged forests, in forests influenced by other activities than forestry and in plan tations established on agricultural land. Forests are also affected by disturbances. Large-scale dicturbances caused, for example, by fire have cre ated forests with different succession stages. Small-scale disturbances create forests with long continuity and gap dynamics. The main strategies for pre serving biodiversity are the protection of forests in nature reserves, develop ment of alternative silvicultural methods and environmental protection meas ures in daily forestry activities. Key and indicator species and key habitats are used in defining the protection value of a forest. The protection of biodiver sity in forestry requires education, strategic planning and cooperation between organizations and people locally and internationally. Keywords: biodiversity, silviculture, nature protection, fire, old-growth for ests, key species, landscape ecology. 1 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Department of Animal Ecology S—9ol 83 Umeä, Sweden 2 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Department of Ecology and Environmental Research S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden 192 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 8.1 Introduction Fauna and flora management - biological diversity in focus One of the main tasks of nature conservation is to maintain biological diver sity (World Conservation Strategy 1980, Our Common Future... 1987, Wil cove 1989, Almered-Olsson et al. 1991). On a global scale there is an immense need of conservation work directed towards biodiversity, which includes finding methods and systems for evaluating entire ecosystems, designing reserves, etc. According to Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1992), conserva tion biologists have about a decade to develop and deploy conservation sys tems if they are to play a significant role in preventing the loss of more than half of present terrestrial biodiversity. Hopefully, the situation is not that bad in the Nordic countries. One rea son is that the ecosystems are fairly young. They have developed after the last glaciation period, and consequently species diversity is relatively low. Another reason for optimism is the fact that during the last few years there has been a breakthrough in understanding the biodiversity problems in forest ecosystems among the foresters responsible for the development of the eco nomically and ecologically important forest resourses. That understanding was largely absent during the previous decades, with the rapid development of production oriented forestry. This new trend is backed up by political deci sions, and there is an obvious development towards cooperation between biol ogists and foresters in solving the biodiversity problems in the Fenno scandian forests. For example, in Sweden the government's policy is that "biological diversity and genetic variation should be secured" and environ mental aspects should be as important as production goals in forestry activi ties (En ny skogspolitik... 1992/93, SFS 1993:553). Finland, Norway and Denmark have also outlined policy statements which are directed towards multiple-use forestry, more or less stressing the importance of maintaining biodiversity (Rassi & Väisänen 1987, Flersidig skogbruk... 1989, Koch & Kristiansen 1991). However, there are many threatened species even in the Fennoscandian forests. Forestry activities influence the forest habitats in many ways. Most of the land area in the region is covered by forests - in Finland 70 % (Wahlström et al. 1992), in Sweden 65 % (Sohlberg 1990), in Norway 21 % (Korsmo 1991) and in Denmark 10 % (Report on the monitoring... 1992). As most of the forests are used for timber production (about 95 % in Sweden), it is no wonder that the majority of all threatened species live in forest habitats. In Finland 43 % (Rassi et al. 1992), in Sweden 45-55 % (Ahlen et al. 1979, Ehnström et al. 1993), and in Norway 50 % (Hägvar 1993) of the endangered species are threatened by forestry activities and/or live in forest habitats (see also Rassi & Väisänen 1987, Wahlström et al. 1992, Bernes 1993). 193 Fauna and flora management in forestry During the last two decades, environmental aspects have become more to the fore. Forestry practices have been, and still are, subject to both confronta tion between foresters and environmentalists, buyers' boycotts and demands, and to a dialog and joint research projects between biologists and foresters. The result has been increased interest in improving the prevailing methods (e.g. clearcutting) and development of new forestry methods to meet the present-day demands of maintaining biological diversity in the forests (Fig ure 8.1). The reasons for maintaining biological diversity will not be discussed here, but the interested readers are referred to, for example, McNeely (1988), Reid and Miller (1989), Bunnell (1991), Randall (1991), Botkin and Talbot (1992), Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1992), Perrings et al. (1992) and Stebbins (1992) who discuss and evaluate aesthetic, ethical, economic and other aspects of the issue. Biodiversity is one quality aspect of a forest, and in a way a measurement of authenticity. Of course, the quality of forest could also be treated in a wider sense. As discussed by Dudley (1992), criteria for a definition of forest qual ity could also cover measurement of how closely a forest stand mirrors the natural forests of the area. The health of the forest, i.e. its health with respect to disease or pollution damage and the health of forest flora and fauna are Figure 8.1 Large-scale clearcuttings have contributed to the recent negative reaction by the public towards commercial forestry. Now foresters are increasingly aware of their responsibility for maintaining biological diversity. Consequently, nowadays the clearcutting method is devel oped to include also considerations for fauna and flora, and in forest stands with long continu ity, alternative methods are used. Photo: K. Sjöberg. 194 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries also possible indicators. Environmental benefits, which include benefits that extend beyond the boundaries of the forest, for example, soil and watershed protection and local climatic benefits are another area of quality aspects. Val ues to humans, such as recreation and aesthetic and cultural dimensions, are also possible considerations (Koch & Kennedy 1991, Dudley 1992). Multiple-use aspects of the Nordic forests The forests in the Nordic countries have for centuries been used for different purposes (Saastamoinen et ai. 1984, Esseen et ai. 1992). For example, there have been regulations concerning game species since at least the 1 5th century in Sweden, Finland and Denmark (Rassi & Väisänen 1987). The Fennoscan dian forests were also used, among other things, for tar, fuelwood and char coal production, and, in the agricultural landscape, the forests were grazed by cattle at considerable distances around the settlements (Esseen et ai. 1992). However, during the last century, the timber and pulp dependent forest indus try has dominated the use of the forests, especially in Finland and Sweden. Consequently, in these countries, where still more than half of the land area is covered with forests, most forests are managed intensively. Nowadays there exist only a few percent of the original pristine forests in the Nordic coun tries. Based on the Right of Public Access, people in the Nordic countries tradi tionally have been able to use forests for recreation, irrespective of ownership of the land. For example, in Sweden and Finland, everyone has access even to private forests to pick berries and mushrooms for private use. Also hunting in the forests has traditionally been an activity deeply rooted among the people living in these countries, although hunting rights are tied to land ownership. In Sweden, for example, there are more than 300,000 hunters, and the value of hunting (recreation value and the value of meat together) is estimated to be around 1.9 billion SEK per year (Mattsson 1992). The corresponding value in Norway is about 364 million NOK (Navrud 1993). In Finland, the economic value of forests for berry and mushroom picking, hunting and reindeer hus bandry is about 10 % of its value for timber production (Kuusipalo 1992). The right of access to the forests may be one reason for the public's increasing concern for the management of the forests during the last decades, although most people today live in urban areas. For example, partly as a result of public reaction, the large-scale use of herbicides (for reducing deciduous bushes) and DDT (for control of insect damage) in the forests was declared illegal in Sweden in 1977. As mentioned earlier, at the end of the 1980 s and continuing into the 90s, increasing concern over conservation biology is evident both in the govern ments and in the forest industry in all Nordic countries. Much of the policy is now focused on maintaining biological diversity, and includes an increase in the area of nature reserves, more frequent use of alternative forestry methods, and increased allowance for nature conservation considerations in daily for- 195 Fauna and flora management in forestry estry work (Eriksson & Hedlund 1993). Also such non-forestry products as recreation and aesthetic qualities are now beginning to be evaluated in eco nomic terms. There exist estimates of how much the public is willing to pay for keeping certain quality aspects in forests (Mattsson & Li 1994). These values are an indication of how much society is ready to invest in methods or areas necessary to keep such values, for example by buying forests for nature reserves. Studies have also been made of how different forest management practices affect the non-timber values of forests (Mattsson & Li 1994, Johansson et al. 1994) and of the costs of environmental adjustments (Carlen 1994, Holgen & Lind 1994). The Scandinavian forestry - sustainable use of a resource? Scandinavian forestry is often regarded as one of the few examples of sus tainable utilization of natural resources. However, this statement normally refers to the efficient use of forests for timber production. For example, as early as 1903 a reforestation law was passed in Sweden which led to planting of large areas of deforested areas and to restoration of low-productive over utilized forests (Mattsson 1992). For a better understanding of sustainable utilization in line with the cur rent interpretation of the word, it is important to first of all define what a sus tainable natural resource is. In the present context it can refer to both the yield and the productivity of forests, as well as to biodiversity in forest habitats. In terms of the yield of forest products such as timber or paper, the abovemen tioned statement is probably true, because, since 1973, the growth of the standing crop in Swedish forests has been larger than the harvest (Andersson et al. 1992, see also Linder & Östlund (1992) for a longer time perspective). The same is the case in Finland, where at least since the beginning of inde pendence (1917), the standing crop has never been as large as at present, and cutting is currently about 70 % of annual growth (Wahlström et al. 1992, Kuusipalo 1992). This has been achieved by, among other things, planting fast-growing stands which are often developed as monocultures by manage ment methods such as cleaning and thinning. However, when sustainable use is defined in accordance with the definition given in the convention on biolog ical diversity presented in the UNCED in Rio de Janeiro 1992 (i.e. "... the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future genera tions"), the present forestry is not in line with the definition. In terms of forest ecosystem diversity, or plant and animal species diver sity, the utilization of forest resources has not been sustainable so far. On the contrary, when a major criterion of ecological sustainability is that the origi nal mixture of species remains viable (Haila 1994), the red data lists indicate no such sustainability. 196 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries The question of whether production really is sustainable is also at present often a subject of discussion, not least in connection with the overall prob lems caused by pollution, acidification and increased nitrogen concentration. In this situation, the importance of fauna and flora in keeping forest ecosys tems in such a condition that they produce a sustainable yield of forest prod ucts is increasingly highlighted. Soil organisms are the main focus of interest in this context (Mladenoff & Pastor 1993). Forest-living species form a dominant group of threatened species noted in the red data books documenting endangered species, and forestry activities are blamed for contributing the most to this situation (Rassi & Väisänen, Ehnström et ai. 1993). Certainly the red data lists will still be modified when we know more about the actual reasons for species' disappearance. In a com parison between red data lists from 1977 and the end of the 80s, and from the beginning of the 90s, positive changes (i.e. species is removed from the list or considered less threatened) are more often motivated by improved knowl edge, while negative changes (e.g. addition of species to the list), are more often motivated by a real, increased threat to the species (Eriksson & Hedlund 1993). We certainly know that the majority of red-listed forest species have spe cific ecological demands and suffer from present forestry activities. It has not yet been evaluated to what extent present awareness of biodiversity problems in forestry and the consequent improvements in methods and strategies will have the desired positive effects on biological diversity. There is a crying need for more research, and at the moment alternative forestry methods are being employed before we have knowledge of how these methods will affect flora and fauna. The differences in biodiversity aspects of forests and forestry in each Nordic country can be explained by their land-use history. Consequently, it is difficult to make a comparison between countries with regard to the biodiver sity of managed forests and natural forests. In Iceland, for example, nowa days only 1 % of the land area is covered by woodland, while 25-30 % of the country is estimated to have been forested at the time of settlement. During the latter half of the 1980 s, a considerable change in agricultural practices took place (e.g. a decrease from 950,000 to 530,000 winter-foddered sheep). This makes the present reforestation program possible. About 3 % of the land area in Iceland is considered climatically suitable for wood production (Blön dal 1991). New forests are being created and old ones restored. In 1990, the Iceland Forestry Association initiated a pilot project for reforesting eroded land. Birch (Betula pubescens ) is the dominant species in the reforestation programme, but also several introduced exotics are involved, for example Russian larch (Larix sukaczewii), Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), mountain pine (P. mugo), Sitka spruce (Picea sitchaensis), black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpus ) and several Salix species. Thus, the biodiversity of forest-liv ing organisms will gradually increase, but in quite a new context. 197 Fauna and flora management in forestry Figure 8.2 Map showing the present distribution of the introduced North American Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorts) in Sweden. Source: Department of Forest Survey, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. The situation in Iceland is much different from the situation in, for exam ple, Finland and Sweden, where the problem is rather how to maintain biodi versity in the remaining pristine forests, and how to maintain biodiversity in the dominating forest types, i.e. forests with different degrees of management impact, ranging from naturally renewed forests to planted forests at clearcut areas. Even in Sweden, where most forests are already managed, an exotic coniferous tree species, the North American Lodgepole pine (Pinus con torta), is used in efforts to increase the forest production; about 540,000 hect ares have been planted with this species (Contortatallen i Sverige... 1992). It should also be mentioned that a large proportion of the planted spruce seed- 198 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries lings originate from far away (sometimes even from central Europe; the cen tral European spruce populations are consistently depauperate of genetic variability compared to Swedish populations of Norway spruce (Lagercrantz & Ryman 1990)). It has not yet been fully evaluated if, and how, the Lodge pole pine and the different provenances will influence the biodiversity. The answer might depend on the scale used: the stand, the forest or the landscape level (Figure 8.2) In Norway, large areas of exotic conifers have been planted to improve forest production in the mountain areas in the northern part of the country, as well as to create new forests in old sheep-grazed areas in the western part. In Denmark, finally, the situation is partly different. There too, as in parts of Norway and Iceland, the intention is to increase the acreage of forests. In addition, plantations which bind shifting sand are important. A large propor tion of the forests consists of plantations of spruce, which is not indigenous to Denmark. A small part of the forest area (less than 10 %) is planted with spruce and exotic conifers to be used as Christmas trees and decorations. Again, in such forests the biodiversity aspects are quite different from areas which have continuously been covered with indigenous tree species. 8.2 Basic concepts What is biodiversity? McNeely et al. (1990) defines the term biodiversity in the following way: "Biological diversity encompasses all species of plants, animals, and micro organisms and the ecosystems and ecological processes of which they are parts. It is an umbrella term for the degree of nature's variety, including both the number and frequency of ecosystems, species or genes in a given assem blage. It is usually considered at three different levels: genetic diversity, spe cies diversity, and ecosystem diversity". In the convention on biological diversity accepted at the UNCED conference at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the following definition was used: "Biological diversity (or biodiversity) means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". There are also other definitions of biodiversity (see e.g. McNeely 1988). Most of them include all three levels, i.e. genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Noss (1990), based on Franklin et al. (1981), recognizes three primary attributes of biodiversity, namely composition, structure and function. These can be arranged in a hierarchy that incorporates elements of each attribute at four levels of organization. These are regional landscape, community/ecosys tem, population/species and genetic levels. Noss stresses the process as an important component of the diversity of interactions between species, natural 199 Fauna and flora management in forestry disturbances and nutrient cycles (cf. McNeely 1994). For a more detailed sur vey of the biodiversity concept, see Haila and Kouki (1994). The diversity concept can be used in different ways. For example, the quality aspect may be emphasized. Consequently, when discussing biodiver sity, it ought to be defined precisely. One may argue that a clearcut area increases the biodiversity in a homogenous boreal coniferous landscape. However, although it may be true for a certain area, increased biodiversity is not, according to the conservationists, automatically an improvement of the biological quality. They rather compare the biodiversity in forests regenerated on clearcut areas with the original forest ecosystems. The number of more demanding or specialized, usually rare or threatened species, will decrease after clearcutting and thus lead to the trivialization of the area. What are the goals in forestry policy and biodiversity? There seems to be an increasing political consensus in the Nordic countries that biological diversity and genetic variation should be secured. To be able to do that, the general goal must be to maintain the fauna and flora in natural and viable populations (e.g. ensuring 95 % probability of survival for a popula tion for at least 100 years into the future). This is also stated in the new Swed ish Forestry Act (Svensk Författningssamling 1993:553), where the environ mental goal is given the same weight as production goals. It is concluded that the forest is a national resource which should be treated in such a way that it gives a sustainable yield, and, at the same time, biodiversity should be main tained. Since it is hardly realistic to maintain the biodiversity or the species com position at every single site or stand in areas with forestry activities, it is nec essary to determine the scale on which these qualities actually should be preserved. The landscape or the regional perspective in forestry planning has clearly been a subject of attention recently (see for example Angelstam et al. 1990, Hansson & Angelstam 1991, Hansson 1992, Franklin 1993). Conse quently, a forest stand may lose some of its diversity as a result of, for exam ple, clearcutting, but, at the landscape or regional level, the biodiversity and the original fauna and flora composition should be kept intact in viable popu lations. One way of looking at the problem of maintaining biodiversity in the landscape perspective is to divide the forest landscape into compartments according to current forestry and conservation practices, and to treat those parts in different ways. Ingelög and Lennartsson (1991) have discussed three area types: 1) managed forest stands, in which certain considerations to flora and fauna are shown, but within the frames of profitable forestry, 2) small, often low-productive or difficult to manage areas and corridors between the managed areas, which are preserved as intact as possible, and 3) large areas, usually in the form of nature reserves, completely without normal forestry. These three ways of maintaining biodiversity are partly replaceable, as long 200 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries as the total potential for biodiversity over a landscape scale is large enough. When dealing with various types and levels of consideration to flora and fauna, it is important to take into account the history of each stand, area or region (e.g. McNeely 1994). Most forests have to some degree already been influenced by human impact. If we want to maintain the forest flora and fauna, an effort must be made to refer to the original flora and fauna of the region. If the area is in an unex ploited condition, the goal is to maintain the diversity. In most cases, as a result of earlier treatments, the goal is to restore degraded stands. Maximizing diversity seldom seems to be a desirable goal, as it could include, for exam ple, introduction of exotic species to replace the lost old-growth species (Hunter 1990). What is original fauna and flora? From a conservation point of view it seems practical to use the species composition and processes in natural for ests within the region as a reference. Of course, species in natural succes sional stages which lead to mature climax forests must be included in the management process as well as ecological processes such as natural distur bances caused by fire and wind. However, in some cases it may be impossible to estimate the species composition, since the boreal forests may be inher ently characterized by non-equilibrium disturbance regimes (Sprugel 1991). In other cases the species and processes typical of natural forests in a region simply must be estimated, since reference areas are lacking. This applies especially to regions in southern Fennoscandia, cultivated in prehistoric times, or to regions along the Bothnian land uplift coasts, which may have been cultivated as soon as they appeared. Some ecosystems exist only as a result of human activities (e.g. wooded pastures). There are no natural refer ence areas to be found for them. A. Biodiversity goals in areas where forests are still intact In natural forests not influenced by forestry (for example, in national parks and nature reserves), the goal must be to maintain the fauna and flora typical for the region intact in natural populations. Even here, however, the goal is not easy to attain. The original forest, even if not influenced by forestry, is influenced by air pollution, acid rain, reindeer management, hunting, etc. The diversity of ecological processes in the ecosystems may be lacking or reduced; for example, the forest fires have not been allowed to develop natu rally in national parks and reserves. Isolation of reserves and efficient fire protection also decrease the possibilities of trees (and tree species composi tion) to develop naturally (Esseen et ai. 1992). Furthermore, the small size of reserves usually tightly limits natural pro cesses and the reserve's value for maintaining biodiversity in general. Conse quently, the goal must not only be to maintain a diversity of species, but also to manage for specific ecosystem and process diversity. The goal must also be to maintain biodiversity by securing area configuration and spatial distribu- 201 Fauna and flora management in forestry Figures 8.3 and 8.4 During several decades, more or less natural forests with multi-layer structures and natural forest qualities have been, via radical methods such as soil preparation, converted into plantations (sometimes with exotic species like Pinus contorta with a single layer structure and without the qualities of natural forest, such as dead wood). Photos: K. Sjöberg. 202 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries tion both on a regional and a national scale. Even temporal distribution must be considered, especially concerning successional biotopes. B. Biodiversity goals in managed forests Managed forests in the Nordic countries vary in degree of management influ ence from almost natural forests (naturally regenerated and slightly influ enced by forestry activities) to man-made plantations of exotics after clear felling - or even plantations of long since deforested land, for example, aban doned fields (Figures 8.3, 8.4). Since the managed forests cover a far larger area than the pristine ones, species and biodiversity cannot be maintained without involving managed areas. The quality of the managed forests (which normally create the matrix in the present forest landscape) is of great impor tance, because it influences the effectiveness of reserves and controls land scape connections (Franklin 1993). The goal could be to create a diverse landscape of stands which are managed with ecologically adapted methods and surrounded by corridors designed for various purposes (Ingelög & Len nartsson 1991). An important part of the maintaining or restoration of biodiversity is to allow dispersal of organisms from remaining small fragments still retaining specialized species and pristine forest qualities (key biotopes), for example, by giving such areas key positions in the network of unmanaged habitats. Rare species may require the restoration of ecosystems to be able to survive in viable populations, or they need special species-adapted activities, such as addition of logs and other types of wood from outside the managed area. C. Biodiversity goals in forests influenced by other activities than forestry Substantial efforts are also being made to preserve many man-influenced, or even man-made habitats (such as pastures, grazed areas, etc.) in the conser vation programs in the Nordic countries. Many of these habitats are the result of agricultural, cattle-based activities. Now, when agricultural influence is decreasing, coniferous plantations are spreading over older meadows and pastures, thus replacing deciduous trees. Even without plantations, the light open habitats disappear due to bush encroachment, once management stops. In the Forestry Act of Sweden, such areas are considered as forest land, and in the red data lists, the species living there are often regarded as influ enced by forestry activities. At least in Sweden, the habitats involved (e.g. meadows with scattered trees) are nowadays treated according to special management programs. The landowner can get financial support for main taining such threatened habitats in their original status. The program covers about 50,000 hectares of mainly meadows and pastures. Because of the pro gram, the rate of decrease of such originally grazed or mowed habitats may be slowing down. A large group of red-listed species are confined to such habitats (Lennartsson 1991, Ehnström et ai. 1993). The maintaining of these 203 Fauna and flora management in forestry habitats is a difficult problem, but some species groups living in them could possibly find suitable habitats in, for example, fire-induced successional for ests (Ahnlund & Lindhe 1992, Gärdenfors & Baranowski 1992, Nilsson et ai. 1994). D. Biodiversity goals in forest plantations on agricultural land Forest plantations on agricultural land, abandoned fields, heaths, etc., can in a way be regarded as restoration of former forests, as forests probably normally preceded the agricultural areas. Although a realistic goal can hardly be to restore species diversity to a situation normal for forested areas of the region, it is indeed possible to increase diversity in the habitats by including some natural forest qualities, for example by avoiding single-layer monocultures, and by creating a mix of different tree species, as well as diverse forest edges. Conclusion Apparently, to fulfil the biodiversity goals presented in the sections A-D, both preservation and management activities as well as restoration activities will be necessary. Hunter (1990) expresses the differences between managing for diversity, maintaining diversity and maximizing diversity: "Managing for diversity simply assumes that having a variety of wildlife is a management goal; it is a somewhat vague phrase. To maintain species diversity is to ensure that viable populations of all the native species of flora and fauna characteris tic of the management area will be present. Maximizing diversity should probably not be a goal, because it could lead to the aforementioned prospect of trying to raise eight species of game bird on the same area, or even trying to import exotic species. In cases where the natural diversity has been reduced by human interference, it would be preferable to speak of restoring diversity, rather than maximizing it". The problem of scale In the biodiversity discussion, scale is an important aspect. The spatial and temporal scales with respect to habitat area requirements are different for spe cies belonging to different taxa (e.g. soil organisms, plants, beetles, birds, large mammalian predators). For example, as shown by Helle (1986), not even a large protected virgin forest of 70 km is a "closed" unit for bird popu lations, as the bird populations even here are influenced by large-scale changes in the surrounding areas (cf. Glenn & Nudds 1989). To conserve the vast array of insects, it is also important to have a clear picture of spatial scales and processes on which conservation research and management are carried out (Samways 1993). Species of different size will certainly react differently to the fragmented landscape. The landscape elements such as matrix, patches and corridors, are visual, anthropocentric interpretations, where as, in reality, the fragmented 204 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries landscape perspective is not appropriate for describing the local limits of dis tribution of many animals (Bruce & Howard 1990, Samways 1994). Their distribution or dispersal patterns may not coincide with the borders of land scape elements. Further, each species has a characteristic response to land scape patterns. The landscape, in effect, acts like a differential filter for different species, and even for different sexes and life stages (Samways 1994). Many problems of spatial and temporal scale in conservation relate to dis turbance. The area affected by a disturbance (patch size) is of primary consid eration in studies of disturbance ecology, and determines the grain of a landscape (Noss 1992). Small disturbances such as individual tree falls create a fine-grained pattern, whereas large disturbances create a coarse-grained pattern. Different types of organisms certainly perceive a landscape grain quite differently (Noss 1992, Rolstad & Wegge 1987, 1989). Most landscapes are characterized by overlaying fine and coarse-grained patterns, which reflect the diverse history of disturbances (Noss 1992). Therefore, no single scale of observation will provide full understanding. Thus, use of a broad spectrum of spatial and temporal scales is recommended (Wiens et al. 1986, Morris 1987, Wiens 1989). Consequently, in conservation practice, the need to manage at multiple scales and levels of organization is becoming obvious (Noss 1992, Noss & Harris 1986). This is also the case when selecting or evaluating conservation strategies, for example, size and distribution of net works of protected areas of high conservation value (Prendergast et al. 1993). Biodiversity and conservation biology - theoretical framework The biodiversity concept is an accepted part of the fast-growing discipline called conservation biology. Actually, Soule (1986) defines conservation biology as the science of scarcity and diversity, and regards it partly as a response to the present biological crisis. It is supposed to help us decide what facets of nature to preserve, how to avoid extinction, and how to restore eco logical damage (Western 1989). Conservation biology deals with many aspects of ecology, such as habitat selection, and breeding conditions in the habitats. These influence the popula tion levels of plants and animals, leading to analyses of the viability of the populations (Soule 1986, Western & Pearl 1989, Fiedler & Jain 1992, Haila & Kouki 1994). For forest-living species, all these aspects are involved in the present lively discussion about the habitat fragmentation of the forests (for a recent review of this theme based on Fennoscandian conditions, see Hansson 1992, and articles therein, for example, by Angelstam and Esseen et al.). Hab itat fragmentation, in turn, could be discussed in relation to three main sub jects, namely island biogeography, metapopulation dynamics and landscape ecology. Considerable attention has been paid to island biogeography in nature conservation work (As et al. 1992.). Although the ideas about species/area 205 Fauna and flora management in forestry relationship were developed for a real island (Mac Arthur & Wilson 1963, 1967), they have repeatedly been applied to the conditions of fragmented for est landscape, with forest islands in a matrix of mainly clearcut areas. It has been suggested that the species/area relationships are an equilibrium between extinctions and colonizations, with extinction rate determined primarily by the area of the island, and colonization rate by the isolation of the island. The size of and distance between reserves in the landscape has been one of the core problems in the debate on how to design nature reserves (Diamond 1976, Simberloff & Abele 1976). Metapopulation theory, based on a model for spatial population dynam ics, presented by Levins (1969), and developed by Hanski (1982), Hastings (1991) and others, has also been much used in the conservation biology and habitat fragmentation discussion (As et al. 1992). Metapopulations are spa tially structured subpopulations separated by space or barriers and connected by dispersal movements (Opdam 1991). Such local populations can become extinct and then be re-established, resulting in a distribution pattern that shifts over time (Opdam 1991). The possibility of a subpopulation surviving in a patch or a fragmented area is influenced by stochastic and deterministic (e.g. forest fragmentation by man) factors and by the size of the patch. The smaller the area, the lesser the chance of survival. The possibility that a patch which has lost a subpopulation will be recolonized depends on the degree of isolation of the patch. Population viability analysis (PVA), i.e. the process of estimating the probability of the persistence of a population for some arbitrary time into the future (Soule 1987, Boyce 1992), is a part of the metapopulation theory, and has become one of the key ideas of conservation biology (Wagner 1989, Boyce 1993). It has been used to estimate the probability of a certain popula tion becoming extinct (Soule 1986, 1987, Gilpin & Soule 1986). Examples of such analyses are given in North America for the grizzly bear (Schaffer 1983) and for the spotted owl (Boyce & Irvin 1990), and in Fennoscandia for the pool frog (Rana lessonae) (Sjögren 1991). The connectivity problem, i.e. the interconnection of functionally related ecological elements of a landscape (Merriam 1984), is an important part of landscape ecology. It can be illustrated, for example, by a species' possibility of moving between forest islands. The connectivity of the landscape depends on such landscape elements as corridors and stepping stones, but also on the landscape matrix. According to the reviews made by Simberloff and Cox (1987), Simberloff et al. 1992, and Hobbs (1992), there are few good data on the importance of these landscape elements. Furthermore, Bennett et al. (1994) have shown that there is no empirical evidence that corridors reduce extinction risk or enhance recolonization rates. However, there are studies carried out in agricultural landscapes with forest patches which show that corridors are functioning for some species (Fritz & Merriam 1993). Even if the importance is not yet proved accurately in forest landscape (cf. Simberloff 206 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries et ai. 1992), without doubt such corridors may constitute an important habitat in their own right (Simberloff & Cox 1987, Naiman et ai. 1993). They will certainly act as habitat for many species with limited dispersal habits, and thus be useful as a part of the network of forest patches of the original ecosys tem (Ingelög & Lennartsson 1991, Lindenmayer & Nix 1993, Mladenoff et al. 1993). 8.3 How forestry influences biodiversity Forestry activities influence species composition, ecosystems and ecological processes in the forest in many different ways. It is reasonable to assume that, on the species level, the species which will be most severely affected are those with specific demands on the substrata or microhabitat, and those depending on habitats that are decreasing due to forestry or general reduction of natural processes, such as forest fires (Table 8.1). Consequently, from a biodiversity point of view, it ought to be beneficial to discuss the detailed demands of the decreasing species, and what were the main influences in the forests before man began to be the main "impact force" in boreal forests; what influenced regeneration, tree species composition, age structure of trees, canopy layer structure, patchiness, mosaic structure and other habitat qualities of a forest which, in turn, influence the availability of habitats and conditions needed by the forest species (Figures 8.5, 8.6). The primary question, i.e. which habitats and conditions are needed by the more sensitive, demanding, and decreasing forest species is, as long as we do not insist on details, easy to answer. In Swedish conditions, the most threatened species (at least 80 % of them) demand substrata typical of natural forests but occuring very rarely in exploited stands; 30 % demand dead wood, 25 % old trees, 35 % unexposed soil, 70 % are sensitive to light exposure, etc. (Len nartsson 1991). Concerning the main influences listed above, human activity has greatly altered the size and frequency of disturbances. This has resulted in major dif ferences between natural forests and managed forests. For example, wildfires are quickly extinguished today. Depending on the scale of the disturbance, two main types can be sepa rated: - Large-scale disturbance patterns caused by forest fires, which create forest with marked succession stages. Small-scale disturbance patterns caused by, for example, wind, which cre ate forests with long continuity and internal stand dynamics (gap dynam ics). 207 Fauna and flora management in forestry Table 8.1 Examples of species and habitat qualities which are heavily influenced by today's forestry activities. I Species connected to natural forest qualities 1. Species connected to stable habitats (e.g. fire refugia). These species groups demand habitats with: a. Specific substrata typical in fire refugia: * Old trees - Calicium parvum, Usnea longissima, Lecanactis abietina * Moist shaded ground and stone block substrata - Anastrepta orca- densis, Hylocomium umbratum, Epipogium aphyllum * Dead wood at different stages of decay (often shaded sites) - Anas- trophyllum hellerianum, Calypogeia suecica, Herzogiella turfacea, Amylocystis lapponica b. Continuity: * Old trees/ snags/logs continuosly occuring within a limited area - spe- cies with limited dispersal ability * Shaded, moist substrata (e.g. trees, logs, stone, ground) under stable conditions (lona stand continuity) - species sensitive to rapid micro- climate changes 2. Species occurring in disturbed habitats. These species groups demand habitats with: a. Specific substrata formed by disturbance: I. Disturbance caused by fire: * Burned ground and wood - Geranium bohemicum, Fayodia carbon- aria, Hypocenomyce anthracophila * Deciduous trees - Neckera pennata, Ficedula parva, Dendrocopos leucotos, Collema subnigrescens, Lobaria pulmonaria, Lentinellus vulpinus * Wood of deciduous trees - Clavicorona pyxidata, Radulodon erikso- nii, Gloiodon strigosus, Inonotus rheades, Flammulaster limulata * Brown earth types - Astragalus glycyphyllus, Platanthera bifolia II.Disturbance caused by grazing: * Semi-open or patchy deciduous forests, often with old trees and herb-grass dominated field layer - Aurantioporus croceus, Clavaria rosea, Polyporus umbellatus, Perenniporia medulla-panis b. Continuity: * Trees/snaqs/loqs continuously occurinq within a larqe area (lona for- est continuity) - species with the ability of survivinq unfavourable con- ditions or finding suitable substrata or conditions far away II Forest habitats which have decreased or are still decreasing: * Alder swamps and other deciduous wet forests * Some types of wet or moist spruce dominated forests * Deciduous and mixed coniferous/deciduous forests * Broadleaved deciduous forests and mixed broadleaved deciduous/ coniferous forests * Grazed forests, especially forests dominated by deciduous trees 208 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figures 8.5 and 8.6 Fire and storm felling has created natural disturbance processes in the original forest landscape. Up till recently, also cattle grazing has affected forests. Both fire and cattle grazing have practically disappeared as ecological factors in forests, and after storm fell ing the trees are normally removed immediately. Photos: K. Sjöberg. 209 Fauna and flora management in forestry Forest fire as a large-scale disturbance pattern In dry and mesic forests, fire seems to have played an important role in struc turing the forest stands within the boreal region (Streijlen & Zackrisson 1986, Bonan & Shugart 1989, Zackrisson & Östlund 1991). Actually, natural distur bances may have been so common that they prevented forests from reaching a stable state (Sprugel 1991). Forest fires were up till the end of the last century an important distur bance process in the Fennoscandian forests. In a study area in northern Swe den, fires swept over the forest stands at a mean interval of 80 years (Zackrisson 1977). However, there is great variation in fire frequency from region to region (Bradshaw & Zackrisson 1990). Apparently, about 70 % of the forests in large parts of northern Sweden were influenced by repeated for est fires, while about 30 % became more or less protected from fire, forming fire refugia (Zackrisson & Östlund 1991, Liljelund et al. 1992). Forest fires and other natural disturbances create succession stages of higher complexity compared to a clearcut area. Monitoring dead wood at the end of the 1 9th century in Sweden showed that the standing, but dead, trees could constitute 15-20 % of the tree volume, or 10-30 large trees per hectare. The forests were unevenly-aged and had a multi-layer structure. The fires to some extent also determined the tree composition; Scots pine and deciduous trees could survive better, compared to Norwegian spruce (Zackrisson & Östlund 1991). Natural disturbance patterns in forest ecosystems are in many respects very different from the disturbances caused by forestry activities (Pettersson 1991, Haila et al. 1994). Different forest types and regions show different types of disturbance, as well as different frequency and intensity of the distur bance due to differences in terrain morphology, etc. These variations create natural landscape mosaics of different succession stages. Thus, parts of the landscape are seldom disturbed in the natural stage and create habitats with long tree layer continuity, for example forested patches in mire areas. Sensi tivity to disturbances caused by forestry activities is therefore most pro nounced in such areas. Fires occur more seldom in wet forests and forests close to mountain ranges. In the natural state, forests with long continuity will be the result. Even if a fire appears, its character is different; the fire gets a more patchy distribution and less trees are killed (Haapanen & Siitonen 1978, Hörnberg et al. 1992). The animals and plants living in burned areas show adaptation to the nat ural disturbance patterns in which they have evolved (Pettersson 1991). For example, grazing by megaherbivores in the deciduous forests of southern Sweden and Denmark in prehistoric times may have shaped forest structure before present-day large-scale forestry (Andersson & Appelqvist 1990). The species adapted to semi-open deciduous forests may, in historical times, have benefited from grazing by the wild herbivores. 210 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Small-scale disturbance pattern - old-growth forests The dynamic within the tree layer in forests without fire is caused by putre faction and other mortality factors caused by natural aging. Regeneration in such forests occurs continuously, and appears mainly in the patches generated by windthrows, and on the decaying logs. Such gap disturbances are also caused by snow, ice, etc. The resulting microsites are favourable for seedling establishment, which creates heterogenous forest structures and contributes to the coexistence of coniferous and broadleaved tree species (Hyttebom et al. 1987, Hörnberg et al. 1992, Kuuluvainen 1994). This also maintains high diversity for other organisms in the boreal forests, such as bryophytes (Jons son & Esseen 1990). In this type of old-growth forests, i.e. mature forests with long forest con tinuity, certain specific qualities can be defined as important for maintaining the natural biodiversity. There are standing dead trees or snags, and fallen trees or logs at different stages of decay are abundant. As regards the living trees, there are also old trees interspersed with young ones, creating an uneven multi-layer forest structure. High humidity is another feature of many old growth forests, as well as wood, trunks and soil substrata seldom exposed to the sun. In Sweden, only about 5 % of the forests are regarded as natural old growth forests. For example, in the province of Hälsingland, where forests cover 80 % of the land area, only 0.01 % thereof is virgin old-growth forests. Just 10 % of the forests consist of stands older than 120 years, and only 0.4 % are older than 160 years (Delin 1992). This can be compared to the possible biological age of mature trees (Figures 8.7, 8.8). The Norway spruce, for example, can reach the age of about 400 years, and Scots pines can be much older (Engelmark & Hofgaard 1985). A managed forest will normally reach the age of just 80-130 years before cutting (fast growing spruce on aban doned agricultural land can be harvested at an even lower age). There are few vascular plant species in Fennoscandia exclusively depen dent on old forest stands. In total, about 15 % of the red-listed vascular plants in Sweden occur in forest habitats. Species such as Calypso bulbosa and List era cordata normally require a period of about 60-80 years before they become re-established after clearfelling (Ingelög et al. 1987), and bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus ) needs about 80 years to reach full development (Kardell 1980). Factors that affect vascular plants besides clearing, thinning and clearfelling are drainage of forest wetlands, soil scarification, transforma tion of deciduous forests - especially broadleaved types - to coniferous for ests, and abandonment of grazed (or mowed) forest types. Bryophytes are more dependent than vascular plants on forest habitats. About 41 % of the threatened bryophytes in Sweden are dependent on dead trees (Söderström & Jonsson 1992), and many bryophytes grow on such large-sized logs that they only occur in very late successional stands (Söder ström 1987). For these species even the degree of exposure to wind is a criti- 211 Fauna and flora management in forestry Figures B.7 and 8.8 Maps showing the location of remaining natural forests and the age distri bution of the forests in Sweden. Source: Department of Forest Survey, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. cal point. However, studies are at present being carried out to test if it is possible to keep, or even bring in from elsewhere, old wood at logged areas to compensate for the loss of dead wood (As 1993). Bader et al. (1994) believe that it is possible to restore or create substrata for polypores and other wood inhabiting organisms in intensively managed forests. Many of the cryptogam and invertebrate species associated with old growth utilize specific old-growth components such as decaying logs and snags (e.g. Esseen et al. 1992, Söderström & Jonsson, 1992, Solbraa & Grön vold 1992; for a review, see Samuelsson et al. 1994). Bader et al. (1994) have shown that polypore fungi species richness is negatively affected by logging activities because they reduce substrata availability and quality. Many lichens are dependent on old trees (Topham 1977, Esseen 1981, Hallingbäck 1986, Ingelög et al. 1987, Söchting & Christensen 1989). For example, the mean stand age of 13 sites with Usnea longissima was 194 years (range 120-260 years) (Esseen & Ericson 1982). Of the 900 lichen species in 212 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Denmark, about 550 are particularly worth protecting (184 of these species appear in broadleaved forests and 100 in old natural forests) (Sochting 1992). As these species have disappeared from northern Germany and are decreasing in southern Sweden, Denmark seems to have a particular responsibility to protect them (Sochting 1987). Also a large number of insects occur in old-growth stands, for example, the beetle Pytho kolwensis, which utilizes logs of old age and size (Ehnström & Walden 1986). About 880 species of beetles in Sweden are dependent on dead trees (Andersson et ai. 1987). In Denmark, the figure is about 500 (Naturpleje i skov 1989, Hubertz 1991). One third to half of Denmark's 18,000-20,000 insect species are related to trees and bushes (Martin 1992). okland (1992) stresses the important relation between natural forests and many of Norway's 13,000 insect species. Most of the forest insects which are regarded as threatened and vulnerable are dependent on dead wood. In Fin land, invertebrate species associated with primeval forests, especially with the wood decomposition system in them, seem to have declined drastically (Heliövaara & Väisänen 1984). The relation between old forests and bird species is well documented in Fennoscandia, particularly in Finland (e.g. Helle 1984, Helle & Järvinen 1986, Virkkala 1987, Virkkala 1990). The black woodpecker normally uses trees of a certain size for its nest cavities (Sandström 1992, Johnsson 1993) and many other birds utilize secondarily the same holes (e.g. jackdaw and stock dove). Some birds of prey (e.g. golden eagle) construct nests of such a weight that only old-growth trees are suitable. The mean age of 121 nesting trees in northern Sweden is 330 years (range: 120-540 years) (Tjernberg 1983). Again, other birds secondarily use their nests for breeding. For exam ple, some birds of prey are dependent on these primary nest constructors, as they do not build nests of their own (Esseen et ai. 1992). Some hole-nesting birds (e.g. owls and goosander), can, because of their size, only use holes or cavities formed in old trees. In a study from central Sweden, Sandström (1992) found on average a 2.8 times higher density of hole-nesting birds in natural forests compared to managed forests. Several studies have confirmed that the changes in the bird species com position are consequences of changes in forest tree and stand ages (e.g. Ahlen 1975, Brogger-Jensen 1992). For example, the structure of the forests in northern Finland has changed remarkably during the past decades. The most dramatic changes are the increase of young tree stands and forest fragmenta tion, which have favoured bird species related to open land and bush layer (e.g. Emberiza citrinella, Lanius collurio), but has been detrimental for spe cies of old coniferous forests, i.e. Parus montanus, P. cristatus, P. cinctus, Certhia familiaris, Perisoreus infaustus (Järvinen et ai. 1977, Helle 1985, Helle & Järvinen 1986, Virkkala 1987). In a study of forest birds in Denmark, the mean number of breeding pairs in natural forests was about twice the number found in managed forests (Brögger-Jensen 1987). Bird species 213 Fauna and flora management in forestry breeding in tree cavities made up one third to half the number of all birds in natural forests, but their share was only about 10 % in managed forest (Bag ger-Jensen 1987, Hubertz 1979, Hansen 1986). For frogs, forests are impor tant habitats for parts of the year (Sjöberg & Ericson 1982). As an example of a possible indirect consequence of changes in forest structure and age, studies on microtine rodents can be mentioned. The many clearcuts and fields with forest plantations increase the number of graminids in forested areas, thus creating better conditions for grassland species among the rodents, which can reach higher densities. As a consequence, the preda tory species, for example the red fox, could increase in number, which, in turn, may have contributed to the declining of tetraonid populations by increasing the predation pressure (e.g. Christiansen 1979, Henttonen, 1989), which also may influence the predation pressure in remaining old-growth forests (Figures 8.9, 8.10). When speaking about the importance of age of forests as the reason for changes in fauna and flora, the following aspects should be taken into account: - The age of single trees influences species which are dependent on tree dimension and bark structure, and species living on dead wood of long-liv ing tree species, such as oak and pine. Examples are found among epiphytic bryophytes and lichens, and birds (e.g. black woodpecker, Dryocopus mai - ti us) (Johnsson 1993), and insects such as click beetles (Elatheridae) (Mar tin 1989). - The age of the forest stand influences species with weak dispersal capacity or species which are dependent on late successional stages. These include species living on dying large aspens in dense spruce forest, or logs of Nor way spruce in old spruce stands. - The age of the forest area, i.e. how long a particular area has been forested, influences species sensitive to exposure and drying. Such species are found among species living on, for example, stone blocks. - The age of the forest structure, i.e. how long the region has had the natural dynamics of fire, storm felling etc., which create structures such as fire ref ugia, burned areas and early succession broadleaved trees, influence many species adapted to successional habitat gradient. For example, some Cole optera species require burned wood for reproduction. It is important to distinguish these factors when making decisions in rela tion to daily forestry activities. 214 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figures 8.9 and 8.10 Habitats created by silviculture during past decades favour some species (e.g. moose) which can utilize the dense bush layer of mainly birch on clearcut areas. Many species, particularly those adapted to old-growth forests (e.g. capercaillie), are negatively influenced. Photos: K. Sjöberg. 215 Fauna and flora management in forestry 8.4. Strategies for maintaining biodiversity To achieve the goal of maintaining all naturally occurring species in viable populations, both general and specific activities must be included in the basic strategy. As the biodiversity concept also covers genetic and ecosystem diver sity, as well as ecological processes, the most efficient strategy must be to preserve as much as possible of original forests, and to imitate the dynamics, structure and function of the natural ecosystems in a given region in managed forests. The main strategies for preserving biodiversity are the following: 1) pro tection of forests in nature reserves, 2) alternatives to the current dominant forestry methods (e.g. clearcutting), and 3) environmental protection mea sures, or considerations for the fauna and flora in the daily activities within all forestry practices. According to the first strategy, the number of nature reserves should be increased up to the acreage expected to be enough to maintain biodiversity, while the rest of forest land could be used for intensive forestry. For example, 10-30 % of the forested land could be set aside as reserves, or restored to a more original state (Liljelund et al. 1992, Bernes 1993). In the Swedish Envi ronmental Protection Agency's opinion, about 5 % of the forest acreage below the border of montane forests ought to be totally excluded from for estry activities. The second strategy requires limited increase in the acreage of nature reserves, and a differentiated intensity of forestry in the rest of the forest land. The third strategy is also based on a limited increase in the acre age of nature reserves, but all the rest of forest land is utilized, giving produc tion forestry and environmental considerations equal value. Regardless of the strategy, the goal must be to achieve the maintenance of biodiversity at the desired scale. Setting aside only a small area of nature reserves thus increases the need for biodiversity considerations in the remain ing forest areas (Ingelög & Lennartsson 1991). The capacity to create new nature reserves is at least at present limited by economic factors, as well as by the fact that there are only few natural forests left in those regions where the reserves are most needed. Therefore, we can not rely on the first strategy alone to maintain biodiversity. The second strategy includes a limited expansion of reserves, and differ ent levels of intensity of management on the rest of the forest land. With this strategy, the forests should be managed differently, for example, depending on production potential and transport distance to the factories. The most pro ductive forests close to factories should be intensively managed, while low productive forests at substantial distance from factories should be managed less intensively. However, this strategy seems difficult to implement because of land-owner structure and distribution. In Sweden, for example, private non-company owners own half of the forest land (Grayson 1993). They are not as flexible as regards geographic allocation of management intensity as 216 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries the big forest companies can be. There will also be an unacceptable geo graphic gradient from south to north and from west to east in productivity and subsequent production costs for land owners with this strategy. The third strategy thus remains, i.e. a limited increase in nature reserve acreage, and strongly modified and ecologically adapted forestry activities on all other forest land. This is in accordance with the new forest policy in Swe den, and independent of land-owner category and geographic distribution. It requires an integrated combination of unmanaged nature reserves and key habitats, improvement of present forestry methods, introduction of new for estry methods, and consideration given to fauna and flora in all forestry activ ities. Utilization of a landscape planning perspective, including preservation of key habitats, corridor linkages and stepping stone habitats between reserves, is a part of this strategy. Actually, the corridors and stepping stone habitats will act as small-scale reserves and additions or substitutes for more formal nature reserves. The present, dominant forestry methods such as clearcutting can be a part of this future strategy, but in a strongly modified form. As mentioned earlier, at least in parts of northern Fennoscandia, about 70 % of forest land has been regularly disturbed by forest fires. If the forestry methods were as similar as possible to the natural dynamics, function and structure of the forests within the region, modified clearcutting can be closer to the natural disturbance caused by fire than forestry based on stand regeneration. Key habitats, in the form of corridors or small "microreserves", must be preserved to a substantial extent, if the area of nature reserves and the amount of modifications in forestry methods are to be kept on an economically realis tic level. Key habitats must not only serve as linkages between reserves, but must make up a considerable part of the total amount of the "improvement". We hope that the combination of modified forestry methods and an undis turbed network of key habitats and nature reserves in a landscape perspective will help the preservation of even demanding species. This could also be a strategy on which both foresters and biologists can agree, and which they can develop together. 8.5 Tools for maintaining biodiversity Protected forests Worldwide, about 3 % of the land area is protected as nature reserves, parks and refuges (Reid & Miller 1989, Wilcove 1989). In Sweden, 2.6 million hec tares of land, representing 6 % of the land surface receive some degree of legal protection under the auspices of the Nature Conservancy Act, 1991 (Skyddad natur 1992). Of this area, 694,000 hectares, which corresponds to less than 3 % of the total productive forest land area, are protected within 217 Fauna and flora management in forestry national parks and nature reserves, land purchased for the nature conservation foundations, as well as crown forest reserves. About 85 % of these areas are above the border line of montane forests. Only 0.5 % of the productive forest land area below the border line is protected. In the important forest region in Västernorrland county, only 0.1 1 % of the land surface is protected within nature reserves, and in the province of Östergötland only 0.09 % (Kardell & Ekstrand 1990). According to the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, about 5 % of the forested area below the border of montane forests ought to be withdrawn from forestry activities. In the other Nordic countries, the situation is much the same. In Finland, with 23 million hectares of forests, in all, the acreage of natural forests pro tected from any commercial use is 4 % of the total forested area. In another 4 % of wilderness forests, utilization is restricted. Most of the protected forests are in the northern part of the country (5 % protected in northern Finland, but only some 0.1 % in the south) (Kuusipalo 1992). Most attention relating to forest protection is focused on conserving old climax-stage forests, which are the habitat for some 40 % of Finland's endangered species (Kuusipalo 1992). In Norway, less than a quarter of the land area is covered by productive coniferous forests. Most of the forest area is on private land, and the web of nature reserves does not cover the diversity of available forest habitats (Kor smo 1991). The share of the protected productive forests is 0.6 % (of which 400 km" are coniferous forests) (Bernes 1993). In Denmark, where originally about 90 % of the land area was covered with forests, the coverage is now only about 12 % - and more than 50 %of the forested area consists of plantations with exotic species. Only 35,000 hectares are regarded as natural forests. Since 1805, all forests are protected as forests, but only about 500 hectares are protected specifically as natural or untouched forests (Koester 1984). Most of the forests are small, fragmented islands in a matrix of agricultural land. Only very few of these are set aside as reserves - and even in forests within nature reserves ordinary silvicultural measures are often allowed. However, the National Forest and Nature Agency has recently proposed a protection strategy which aims at protecting 10 % of the forest area (Skov- og Naturstyrelsen 1992). In summary, only small areas of productive forests are protected in the Nordic countries, and they are not evenly distributed over the forested regions. Furthermore, many forest reserves established in forests with the aim of preserving the natural forest flora and fauna, are not in a natural state (Lindholm 1987). They have experienced some human impact, but are left for free development and to recover. In some places, measures are taken to speed up the recovery of the ecosystems, for example, by filling in ditches. If the preservation of species diversity is to rely on nature reserves, pro tected areas should represent the forest types and diversity shown all over the country. Esseen et ai. (1992) have listed a number of forest types and habitats which are underrepresented or even missing in the present nature reserve sys- 218 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 8.11 The natural ecological succession after forest fire includes such ecosystem types as dense stands of broad leaved trees, mainly birch. As the natural successions nowadays normally are broken, such ecosystems seldom occur in the land scape. Photo: K. Sjöberg. tem in Sweden. Among those are: 1) early to intermediate post-fire succes sions, particularly those dominated by deciduous trees, 2) fire refugia forests, 3) herb-rich conifer forests with intermediate to high productivity, 4) swamp forests, 5) forested ravines, 6) forest margins along water courses, and 7) for ested islands in archipelagoes (cf. Nilsson & Götmark 1992) (Figure 8.11). Biological diversity will probably, as discussed above, not be conserved effectively in nature reserves alone because of the present insufficient acreage of reserves (Wilcove 1989, Hansen et al. 1991, Franklin 1993). Therefore, the reserves must be complemented by a matrix of "seminatural" land where eco logical principles are used to manage both for commodity production and conservation of species diversity, as Harris (1984) expressed the problem (see also Franklin 1993, Mladenoff et al. 1993, Mladenoff & Pastor 1993). Also ecologically functioning patches in the forest landscape with seemingly intact biodiversity must be set aside as a complement to nature reserves. As an example, productive swamp forest patches can be mentioned. How to design and effectively manage such multipurpose landscapes are the concerns of 219 Fauna and flora management in forestry many ecologists and foresters today (e.g. Harris 1984, Franklin et al. 1986, Angelstam et al. 1990, Hunter 1990, Andersson et al. 1992). Modified and alternative forestry methods Clearcutting has been the dominating cutting method in Fennoscandia since the middle of the present century. Even in Denmark, it has been the dominat ing silvicultural practice in spruce forests, while seed tree cutting and natural regeneration have been used in pine forests (Haveraaen 1992). When discuss ing how forestry activities in managed forests could be combined with main taining biodiversity, concensus is emerging among foresters and biologists that one way is to try to reflect the natural disturbance patterns as much as possible when using the clearcut method (Haila et al. 1994). In most of the Nordic forests, fire is regarded as being the main natural disturbance. Nowadays, however, forest fires are normally stopped quite rap idly. In Finland, for example, during the ten-year period 1979-1988, a mean number per year of 466 forest fires produced a burnt area of only 348 ha. (Metsätilastollinen vuosikirja... 1989). A strongly modified clearcutting method could be a reasonable substitute for natural disturbance by forest fire on forest grounds which were frequently exposed to large-scale disturbances in older times, even if there are distinct differences between the dynamics cre ated by clearcutting and fire disturbance (Hunter 1990, 1993, Hansen et al. 1991, Esseen et al. 1992). Management strategies, based on estimates of the Figure 8.12 Burning as a conservation tool is introduced and tested in small scale to maintain biological diversity. Photo: K. Sjöberg. 220 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries frequency and type of natural forest fires, are now being tested in many forest organizations and companies (e.g. Angelstam et al. 1993) (Figure 8.12). The clearcutting method ought to be modified in such a way that it better reflects the burned area after a fire. A difference more in line with the tradi tional way could be natural regeneration of a proportion of the clearcut area to preserve the local genetic variation in the landscape (Liljelund et al. 1992). Burning of some clearcut areas would improve the conditions for those spe cies specialized in such habitats. Enough wood must be left in the logged areas to secure the natural processes and to supply hole-trees, snags and logs in the future succession stages, as a large proportion of the threatened species are confined to such substrata (Liljelund et al. 1992). Liljelund et al. (1992) have estimated that up to 10 % of the wood has to be left after clearcutting to maintain sustainable biological values. Deciduous trees must be saved to a much larger extent than at present in logging operations in coniferous forests and in the resulting successional stands. Also a proportion of other tree spe cies must be saved and allowed to age and die according to the natural life span of each species. The clearcut areas must be considerably smaller to allow migration and recolonization from surrounding stands. Patches and cor ridors of fire refugial character should not be clearfelled. When a well managed stand is ready for logging most of these qualities have normally already been removed during, for example, thinning at earlier stages. This causes problems when we want to increase the amount of decidu ous trees and dead wood. Improvement of such quality aspects must be based on saving trees, snags, etc. right from the first stages after logging. Biodiversity in a forest is influenced not only by the age of the trees, tree species composition and tree layer composition, but also by the flow of mate rial, disturbance patterns caused by wind and fire, fragmentation, etc. Special attention should be paid to the most vulnerable species groups. One such well defined group is the species dependent on old trees or dead wood. Another important group of species is dependent on deciduous trees. In a forest clearcut with a rotation period of about 100 years, few, if any, of those species will survive within a certain forest stand without being given particular atten tion. It will be even more evident when considering the time needed for recol onization of a forest stand. Specialized species will disappear after every clearcut rotation period. Consequently, special steps must be taken to save such species. The interest in alternative methods and practices in Fennoscandia is increasing rapidly (see, for example, Hagner 1992, and the following articles therein: Haveraaen, Larsen, Lähde, Bradshaw & Gemmel). One such method is dimension felling or single tree felling (Lundqvist 1990, 1992, Lindhe & Drakenberg 1992, Vadla 1992, Andreasson 1992). Also different variants of shelterwoods, natural regeneration of all-sized spruce dominated stands treated by single tree selection, and selective felling combined with enrich ment planting are discussed and tested nowadays (Hagner 1992ab, Persson 221 Fauna and flora management in forestry 1992, Solbraa 1991, 1992, Solbraa & Grönvold 1992, Hänell 1992, Mie likäinen et ai. 1992). There are also experiments going on with intermittent two-storied silviculture with Scots pine and Norway spruce (Falck & Ryd berg 1992). In Sweden, selection or single tree cutting has been traditionally used in the coniferous forest belt close to the mountain range area in the northwest part of the country in earlier times, but is nowadays almost abandoned. At present, however, these methods are being discussed again as alternatives to clearcutting (Lundqvist 1990). Studies on selection cutting are also going on in Norway (Solbraa 1993). However, it seems that this system can be used only on a small proportion of the forested area. The method requires a multi layer tree structure. Only a limited acreage of forests comply with that struc ture nowadays, which limits the immediate use of the method. It is not regarded as realistic that the type of forest now in the majority (a single-layer forest prepared for the use of the clearcutting method), can be transformed to a structure suitable for dimension cutting. It is not clear to what extent dimension cutting will improve the possibil ity of keeping the original species diversity intact. For example, Lindhe and Drakenberg (1992) state that such qualities in the natural forest as dead wood, snags and logs become limited with the selective cutting method as well as with clearcutting. Also windthrows, which are essential in small-scale distur bances, will probably be rare. Another important aspect is that the trees are cut at a young age. However, when selective felling is used in combination with biological conservation measures (e.g. logs and snags are left behind and some trees are allowed to reach maturity and die), this method is regarded as a more natural one in areas normally protected from forest fires (Lindhe & Drakenberg 1992). Another aspect of importance is that the new plants are from the local genetic material. A recently started research program will be partly directed to these questions (Atlegrim et al. 1992, Sjöberg & Atlegrim 1994). Other adjustments to present methods are also discussed nowadays, such as changed tree species composition, modified stand configuration, and type and distribution of ditches. Planning of felling in a landscape perspective and better adaptation of forestry activities to local forest site and ecological con ditions are other such adjustments (Lundmark 1986). In conclusion: the rather large-scale monoculture clearcutting forestry that still dominates in virtually all forest types (but is particularly pronounced on land owned by forest companies and by the state), offers few possibilities for preserving biodiversity or threatened species. However, keeping the pre human forest dynamics in mind, it ought to be possible to develop forestry methods that imitate the characteristics of the ecological conditions of each forest type in an acceptable way, at least when combined with nature reserves and other nature conservation measures. For example, in large areas of Fen noscandia, a modified clearcutting method ought to be an acceptable method 222 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries in those areas where natural forest fires once caused large-scale disturbances, while, for example, in the mountain range and in parts of southern Fennos candia, other forestry methods ought to predominate, or the clearcutting method should be used only in small-scale operations. Considerations at each forestry operation For reasons discussed earlier, nature reserves will not solely solve the prob lem of maintaining biodiversity. The alternative and modified forestry meth ods now available are not enough to fulfil the goal, either. Therefore, small scale measures to protect fauna and flora at each forestry operation will be important in future work to maintain biodiversity, independent of the forestry method used. In Sweden, rules for the protection of fauna and flora in connection with normal forestry activities were included in the Forestry Act of 1979. It stated, among other things, that consideration of the fauna and flora must be a part of normal forestry activities. Examples of such activities are saving trees for woodpeckers and birds of prey, as well as trees with woodpecker holes, and deciduous trees, leaving forested zones along edges of bogs and mires and along lake and stream shores, avoiding draining of small wet forest patches, and saving such patches intact in clearcut areas. By such rather simple changes in forestry practices, the diversity and population density of many common species, as well as generalist species, could be improved (Figures 8.13,8.14,8.15, 8.16,8.17). Some years after the introduction of the rules in the Forestry Act, Ecker berg (1988, 1990) made a study where she checked the number of protection measures taken (compared to the potential within the area before the felling). She concluded that only about half of the potential consideration had actually been given to flora and fauna at each forestry operation. Later tests of the same type have resulted in the same conclusions. The National Board of For estry has made a similar study later, which showed that practices were changed in only about 1/2-2/3 of the potential possibilities (Sandström 1991). Since then, a large number of private forest owners, and most personnel in for est companies, have attended courses arranged by the National Board of For estry in, among other things, forest ecology, including conservation biology. Up till now, only a few studies actually present the biological conse quences, or impacts on biological diversity, of the activities mentioned in the Forestry Act. It has been claimed that the conservational impact has been insufficient (Natur '9O 1990). However, data confirming positive effects even with small-scale measures are now being published in increasing numbers (Angelstam et al. 1990, Gärdenfors & Baranowski 1992, Ahnlund & Lindhe 1992). 223 Fauna and flora management in forestry Figures 8.13, 8.14, 8.15, 8.16 and 8.17 Examples of small-scale measures to protect fauna and flora in forestry: saving a) old Salix trees, b) snags, c) old aspen and other broadleaved trees, d) standing dead trees and e) logs in different stages of decay. Photos: K. Sjöberg. 224 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figures 8.18 and 8.19 Pristine wet forests sometimes remain as fire refugia, thus creating for ests with long continuity. Many of these forest stands have been drained. Photos: K. Sjöberg. 225 Fauna and flora management in forestry Also the knowledge of the impacts of forestry on single species is steadily increasing. For example, saving dead wood in a clearcut area in central Swe den has resulted in the appearance of a number of red-listed invertebrates (Ahnlund & Lindhe 1992). Apparently, they were attracted by the light, open and warm habitat. They were able to utilize it because the substrata, the dead wood, was present (for a review of the importance of dying and dead wood, see Samuelsson et al. 1994). In Sweden, the basic knowledge of the consequences of forestry for dif ferent species has been summarized by Ahlen (1977) and Ahlen et al. (1984) for vertebrates, by Ehnström and Walden (1986) for invertebrates, and by Ingelög et al. (1987) for plant species. These studies form a joint data bank for endangered species including not only species affected by forestry, but also species red-listed for other reasons, for example, by agricultural activi ties (Ingelög & Lennartsson 1991). Despite these works, there is much need for further research on the impact of different types of measures, as well as tests of new and modified forestry methods. The use of key and indicator species and key habitats A key habitat has great nature conservation value because rare, endangered and care-demanding species are likely to occur there (Nitare & Noren 1992). A woodland key area is a concept used for a forest stand holding one or more key habitats. Wet forests are an example of such a key habitat in boreal zone. They often function as fire refugia, i.e. they are situated in areas or in posi tions in the landscape where forest fires seldom appear. The result has been forests with long continuity, and with natural forest qualities such as dead wood, logs and snags in good quantities. They are rich in species because many micro-habitats are available within limited areas, and they have a multi-layer structure. Although separated in several types, they cover a sub stantial part of the forested land, particularly in Finland and Sweden (Wahl ström et al. 1992. Bernes 1993) (Figures 8.18, 8.19). Classified endangered species are supposed to be found in key areas, but not necessarily at the same time with the identification of the place, which is normally based on indirect criteria (Nitare & Noren 1992). Old-growth forest stands of all types, but particularly wet spruce forests rich in herbaceous spe cies and wet alder forests, as well as a succession of dense stands of decidu ous bushes and trees on a burned area, primary forest bordering lake shores, and riverine forests, are all examples of woodland key habitats. Certain eco system elements can be found in such habitats. They include old deciduous trees (e.g. aspen, oak, hazel, linden), decaying logs of aspen and spruce, a spring or a sunlit sand surface. Certain selected species can be used to indicate high nature conservation values (see Landres et al. 1988 for critical aspects and Saetersdal & Birks 1993, Saetersdal et al. 1993 and Williams & Gaston 1993 for limitations). In the USA, the Forest Service has to compile a list of five groups of manage- 226 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries ment indicator species (MIS) for each national forest (Wilcove 1989). They are threatened or endangered species, species commonly hunted, fished or trapped, non-game species of special interest, species sensitive to intended management practices and species selected because their population changes are believed to indicate the effect of management activities on other species. Noss (1990) lists five categories of species that may warrant special con servation effort, including intensive monitoring. They are indicator species (signal the effects of perturbations on a number of other species with similar habitat requirements), key species (upon which the diversity of a large part of a community depends), umbrella species (with large area requirements which, if they are given protection, will also protect many other species), flagship species (species with symbol values), and vulnerable species (e.g. rare species). Indicator species indicating high nature values are called signal species (e.g. Hallingbäck 1991). Moneses uniflora, Lobaria pulmonaria, Phellinius pini, Fomitopsis rosea and Clavicorona pyxidata can be mentioned as exam ples in Fennoscandia (Sochting & Christensen 1989, Nitare & Noren 1992). Indicator or signal species are used systematically to survey valuable wood land habitats (Larsson et ai. 1991, Karström 1992a,b, Solbraa 1993, Hägvar 1993, Bredesen & Gaarder 1993). Rolstad (1992) suggests that woodpeckers ought to be used as indicators of biodiversity in Norway. The black wood pecker has been used as a key species and another woodpecker, the white spotted one, has been used as a flagship species in Sweden (Johnsson 1993). Education In Sweden many education programs and books dealing with conservation biology and biodiversity aspects have been carried out and produced recently (Ehnström & Walden 1986, Lundmark 1986, 1988, Ingelög et ai. 1987, Aldentun et ai. 1991). They have been planned for the personnel of the County Forestry Boards (the subdivisions of the National Board of Forestry), and for private foresters. The aim of the campaigns has been to reach forest owners and professionals, such as forest workers, contractors and employees. Also the main private forest companies, as well as the State Forest Company run education programs at all levels in the organizations. This has increased the knowledge of indicator species, key species, key habitats, and other biodiversity key aspects. One of the main objectives of the education is to ensure the implementation of the new forestry policy in daily work practices. Strategic planning and landscape ecology Not least as a result of the abovementioned education programs, interest in landscape level planning has also increased among foresters. It is easiest to use the landscape approach in big forest companies with large acreages of forest land. The application of landscape ecology thinking in daily forestry 227 Fauna and flora management in forestry work is still in early development, although some forest companies have established study areas, where they are practicing landscape-ecology plan ning which involves such aspects as arranging stepping stone patches, corri dor linkages, key habitats and nature reserves in an optimal way (Bratt et al. 1993). In general, there is an increasing awareness in the biodiversity discussion of the importance of involving the whole landscape in a conservation pro gram (Angelstam et al. 1990, Hansson & Angelstam 1991, Angelstam & Holmer 1993). This change in approach has led to many suggestions for mea sures at landscape level, but it also denotes some problems. For example, a lot of work is being done to arrange corridor linkages without knowing to what extent sensitive and threatened species (which are the ones we want this mea sure to preserve) can use these corridors or even survive at all in them. This applies especially for cryptogams, which comprise about 40 % of the red listed forest species in Sweden. However, the landscape-planning concept does not include only the designing of a combination of habitat reserves, key habitats and corridor systems. Franklin (1993) regards understanding and appropriately manipulating the landscape matrix as of at least equal impor tance to reserves, since the matrix itself maintains diversity and controls land scape connectivity. Not only forest companies, but also private landowners with smaller acre ages of forest land, are supposed to plan a cutting with respect to available natural forest qualities such as old broadleaved trees, snags, logs, trees with woodpecker holes, wet forest patches, etc.. Thus, there is much need for land scape-planning functions in the organizations both of companies and of the National Board of Forestry: in forest companies in order to get a regional per spective on conservation measures on their own land and in the National Board of Forestry subdivisions in order to coordinate many private land own ers' measures into a regionally sound combination. In the future, as a result of the new Forestry Act in Sweden, the officers at the National Board of For estry and its subdivisions will be equally responsible for nature conservation and for forest production when supplying advice to the land owners. 8.6 Who should act? Forests and mires create specific habitat mosaics and species combinations in the boreal zone (Sjöberg & Ericson 1992). The Nordic countries are divided into 66 nature regions according to these qualities (including Iceland) (Natur geografisk regionindelning... 1977, Bernes 1993). Consequently, the Nordic countries have a special responsibility for maintaining biodiversity in all these regions. Among species groups, bryophytes are important components of the boreal ecosystems. The boreal forests have a rich bryophyte flora even when compared to tropical regions and rain forest (Hallingbäck 1992). In 1991, the 228 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Bern Convention recommended strict protection of about 10 bryophytes occurring in Sweden (Hallingbäck 1992). Habitats of special interest in this respect in the boreal zone are wet forests, old spruce and pine forests, and dead wood. Many species living on dead wood which are decreasing or have disap peared from south and central Europe are still present in the boreal forests of Fennoscandia (Hallingbäck 1992, Söderström & Jonsson 1992). Conse quently, the Scandinavian countries are internationally responsible for pro tecting and preserving the pristine boreal and boreo-nemoral flora. Also the nemoral forests of Denmark, southern Sweden and southern Norway are of international importance because of the lower pressure from air pollutants than in the nemoral zones in central Europe. The same applies for broadle aved deciduous forests in the boreo-nemoral regions. Not only foresters and forest owners will be involved in the work of main taining biodiversity. Cooperation with organizations and people who can sup port foresters with information on the actual situation within a region or area is also needed. Such organisations include ornithological or other nature soci eties, and state authorities of different kinds. For example, community author ities and local forestry agencies which collect information on rare and engangered species should work together at provincial level. 8.7 The future From the biodiversity and nature conservation point of view, there are at present many positive trends in forestry in the Nordic countries. Drainage of wet forests and mires has decreased. The mean size of clearcut areas has decreased from about 20 hectares to about half that size in northern Sweden. The trend is the same in Finland, where clearcut areas in the state forests are not allowed to exceed 30 hectares. In the southern parts of Finland and Swe den, the mean size of clearcut areas is less than 2 hectares (Bernes 1993). Alternatives to the dominant clearcutting method are discussed and intro duced. At the same time, nitrogen fertilization in Finnish and Swedish forests has decreased, while in Norway it has never been of importance. Also the use of other chemical substances (e.g. herbicides and insecticides) in forestry has decreased. On the other hand, the amount of forest roads to increase the accessibility of forests is still increasing by km/year in Finland and Sweden (Bernes 1993). This on-going change as regards biodiversity aspects of forestry also includes restoration programs. New methods are used to solve the future need for nature conservation areas when it is not possible to buy land. For example, stands with valuable deciduous trees can be protected for a certain time period and economic support to the land owners for maintaining valuable habitats is under development. 229 Fauna and flora management in forestry As a consequence of the new forestry policy in Sweden, advanced educa tion programs will be available to both private land owners and personnel in forest companies, and new ways of cooperation between foresters and biolo gists are being developed. There is reason to believe that the degradation trend in biodiversity values shown during the last decades will end in the near future. The officers of forestry boards have been educated in conservation biology, and are now equally responsible for giving advice in both productiv ity and environmental matters to meet the new demands. However, there are also weaknesses in the new policy, for example, the compliance of the land owner with the nature conservation considerations is voluntary. There were once virgin forests all over Europe. In some countries they have all disappeared a long time ago through conversion to agricultural land, while in others there still exist large forest areas. However, most of the exist ing forests are managed. Now, at the end of the 20th century, nature conserva tion discussion has advanced so far, that the remaining virgin forests are regarded as being so valuable that they should be totally preserved for future generations. Problems with the preservation include lack of money to pre serve all forests which ought to be protected, or alternatively, lack of possibil ities to compensate the land owner with substitutional land. A program for compensating and encouraging the forest owners who really promote nature conservation and biodiversity on their land is needed. 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Research paper of Skogforsk 10. 29 pp. Solbraa, K. 1993. Skogokologi og flersidig skogbruk. (Forest ecology and multiple use forestry.) Aktuelt fra Skogforsk, Nr 3. (In Norwegian.) Solbraa, K. & Granvold, S. 1992. Skogokologi og flersidig skogbruk 111. Del B. Skoglige tilpasninger, friluftsliv og konsekvensvurderinger. Summary: Forest ecology and multiple use 111. Part B. Silvicultural adaptations, open air recrea tion, and consequence evaluation. Skogforsk 14. 54 pp. Soule, M.E. 1986. Conservation biology and the "Real World". In: Soule, M.E. (ed.). Conservation Biology: the science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Associ ates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. p. 1-12. Soule, M.E. 1987. Viable populations for conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 189 pp. Spies, T.A., Franklin, J.F. & Thomas, T.B. 1988. Coarse woody debris in douglas-fir forests of Western Oregon and Washington. Ecology 69: 1689-1702. Sprugel, D.G. 1991. 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World Conservation Strategy: living resource conservation for sustainable develop ment. 1980. lUCN, Gland. 73 pp. Zackrisson, O. 1977. Influence of forest fire on the north Swedish boreal forest. Oikos 29: 22-32. Zackrisson, O. & Östlund, L. 1991. Branden formade skogslandskapets mosaik. (Fire formed the landscape mosaic.) Skog & Forskning 4: 13-21. (In Swedish.) 244 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 245 Forest recreation 9 Forest recreation Frank Sondergaard Jensen 1 Abstract Comparisons between the Nordic countries show similarities as well as dif ferences between the countries. In general, Norway, Sweden and Finland have the most in common in forest recreation. Denmark forms a link between central Europe and rest of Scandinavia, while Iceland takes up a special posi tion. Comparable information is available on the following aspects of recrea tion: the relationship of forest recreation to other leisure activities, the number of visits to the forests, length of stay and transport time, time pat terns, variations through the week, geographical use distribution within the forest, main activities, group size and means of transportation to the forest. Information on the importance of forests for recreation has been provided by studies on people's preferences concerning the quality of the environment, the facilities provided by management and the attitudes of recreationists towards other people in recreation areas. Nature schools give children education on nature and the environment in all the Nordic countries. Nature interpretation is considered to be an essential part of both recreation and tourism. The importance of urban forests and green spaces is increasing, because the amount of people living in towns is growing. Future research and manage ment challenges include the problems connected with area competition and user fees. Keywords: recreation, preferences, nature interpretation, nature schools, urban forests, research. 1 Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute Skovbrynet 16, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark 246 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 9.1 Introduction A detailed examination of the historical aspects of recreation in the Nordic countries is outside the scope of this text, so only an overview of the past is given, to get a feeling of the development of recreational behaviour. Recrea tion in northern Europe follows patterns found in many other Western socie ties, where the nature based recreational life of today can be traced back to the late 19th century (Table 9.1, Figure 9.1). When talking about forest recreation of today, it is valuable to know the existing legal rights of access. In Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland the "Right of Public Access" ("Everyman's Right") is found. This right is a very old traditional privilege in these sparsely populated countries. It gives the right of access to private and public land for everybody, with some obligations im plied. Within certain limits, visitors are allowed to move about freely. As long as they do not cause damage, they can walk or hike; ski; bicycle or go horse riding; pick berries, flowers and mushrooms; go bathing and boating; and pitch a tent for a short period of time. The Right of Public Access was laid down as a written law in 1957 in Norway, and in 1960 in Iceland. In Sweden and Finland, it is called consuetudinary law, or a time-honored right. In more than one way, Denmark forms a link between sparsely populated northern Europe and the more densely populated central Europe. This is evi denced also by the rules for public access. Table 9.1 Rough outline of some of the trends in Nordic outdoor recreation during the last two centuries (partly based on Kardell 1979). Year Development in transportation Movement in society Recreation area Groups of participants 1800 Railway system Conservation org. Beach/ archipelago Tourism org. Mountains Expeditions Bicycles Public buslines Skiing clubs Scout groups Rambling ass. Forests Organized interest groups Families N Private cars Jogging movement Equipment industry Special interest 2000 247 Forest recreation Figure 9.1 Outdoor recreation in the 1880s in Sweden (Nordiska museet, Stockholm). It is believed that the Right of Public Access has been in force also in Den mark. Presumably, this was the case until an act in 1781 forbid the access of all unauthorized persons to the national (royal) forests. Legally, but not in practice, this situation prevailed, until the first Nature Conservation Act in 1917 re-established public access to national forests. A 1969 amendment to that act established a limited right of access to private forests. In the new Na ture Protection Act, which came into force in 1992, these rights of access have just been enlarged and now include, among other things, the use of bicycles in private forests and access to the countryside. 9.2 Recreational use of the forest The recreational use of the forest can be measured in various units: number of visitors, number of visits, or number of visitor/visit hours - and all these units can then be related to the size of the visited area (e.g. number of visits per hectare). However, it is important to keep in mind that the observable recrea tional use of forests is a result of people's choice between, for example, the known and available opportunities for forest recreation. In this way, the for estry sector itself also influences the amount of recreation. The potential 248 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries demand for forest recreation is very difficult to estimate, and will not be cov ered in this context; only the results of people's recreation choice will be described. The following sections will try to cover a wide range of aspects of the ob servable use of the forest for recreation. Comparisons between the Nordic countries will be presented when possible. When making such comparisons, it is important to remember that the results derive from different survey methods and cover a relatively long period. (Koch (1984) gives the main characteristics of about 30 different surveys). Therefore, some of the mutual comparisons are relatively difficult and uncertain. Forest recreation compared to other leisure activities It is of interest to get an idea of how important forest recreation is compared to other leisure activities. The forest plays a very important role in the leisure pattern of the Nordic people (Table 9.2). In general, more than 80 % of the adult population visit the forest at least once every year. This is a rather high percentage compared to other leisure activities, such as movies, concerts, museums, etc. Number of visits to the forests Only Denmark has tried to estimate and describe the recreational use of the individual forest and the variation in use between all forest areas in Denmark Table 9.2 Participation rates for different recreation/leisure activities in four Nordic countries. Norway 3 Sweden b Finland0 Denmark 0 % % % % Forests/nature areas 91 82 85 91 Libraries 51 66 64 Art exhibitions 17 31 41 37 Museums (excl. art) 23 45 - 34 Theatres 22 33 45 13 Sport grounds 33 44 15 32 Concert halls 15 33 20 12 Sources: a) Friluftsliv -undersokelse 1975, Tveit 1979. b) Levnadsförhällanden 1987. c) Ulkoilututkimus 1980, Vuolle et ai. 1986, Niemi et ai. 1991, Sievänen 1993. d) Koch 1978, Fridberg 1989. The data covers a very wide time period, and the definitions of the different activities may vary between the countries. 249 Forest recreation Figure 9.2 Classification of the Danish forest areas according to the yearly number of forest visits per hectare (Koch 1980). (Koch 1980). The main result of these investigations is a classification of altogether 601 forests according to the intensity of recreational use (visits/ha/ year). A description, based on questionnaires, is also given of how the differ ent forests are used for recreation. Figure 9.2 illustrates one of the important results of the investigations. It appears that there is a very large variation between the different forest areas in the yearly number of forest visits per hectare. In each of the 14 counties into which Denmark is divided, it can be found that some forests are used up to about one thousand times more inten sively than other forests. The most intensively used forest in the investigation is used about twenty thousand times more than the least intensively used for ests. In contrast to the other countries, Denmark may be characterized by hav ing a rather uniform geographical distribution of a relatively small forest area per inhabitant. Therefore, it must be expected that an even greater variation between forests in the intensity of recreational use would be found in the other Nordic countries. However, investigations carried out in the other coun tries have only dealt with rather few and relatively intensively used forests (Table 9.3). The most important reason for this is probably that in many areas it is difficult and costly to measure the amount of recreational use. 250 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 9.3 Some measured use figures in selected investigations from Denmark, Norway, Swe den and Finland. Length of stay and transport time Figure 9.3 shows comparisons of results from a Danish survey and results from a quite similar survey in Sweden. Based on this information, it may be concluded that the Swedes spend more time on each visit compared to the Danes, and spend less time on transport to the forest in general. These differ ences are in accordance with the distribution of the forest and living areas in Sweden compared to Denmark. The length of stay is of course very dependent on, for example, what kind of forest we are talking about. This can be well illustrated by a Finnish survey, where Sievänen (1993) finds the average length of a visit to urban forests to be 1.5 hours, while the average for other forest types is 2.6 hours. Reference Forest area Number of visits per ha per year Denmark Koch 1984 Jaegersborg Dyrehave 2021 Store Dyrehave 96 Ätte Bjerge 416 Gl. Kjogegaard 247 Jensen 1992 Vestamager 235 Norway Haakenstad 1975 Frognerseter/Sognvanns 223 Ringkollen 23 Sweden Kardell 1972 Bogesundslandet 34 Heglebäck 1978 Nackareservatet 1500 Järvafältet 300 Lovön 100 Finland Jaatinen 1973 Keskuspuisto 2200 Luukkaa 315 Pouta 1990 Luukkaa 260 Salmi 60 Tarusjärvi 20 Sievänen 1992a Aulanko 2000 Ahvenisto 4000 251 Forest recreation Figure 9.3 Comparisons of the cumulative distributions of two Nordic surveys according to length of stay and travelling time (Saastamoinen et ai. 1984). 252 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Time patterns The Danish time patterns in forest recreation were studied in the 1980 s (Koch 1984). It is quite natural that more visits are made at the weekends, and for ests are more frequently visited in spring and summer than in autumn and winter. Very few visits occur in the late evening and night but there is a ten dency to a small peak of visits around 7 o'clock in the morning (e.g. people jogging and walking the dog before the start of the working day). This is a general Danish pattern, which will cover many situations, but of course there will be differences between the various forest areas - and the Nordic countries. Therefore, examples of differences and similarities in the visit variations through the week and the year are given in Table 9.4. Variations through the week In a Finnish survey by Saastamoinen (1979) and a Swedish survey by Kardell (1982) it is found that in areas very close to or within the city boundary, visits on Saturdays and Sundays account for a considerably smaller part of the total number of visits than in the Danish investigation. On the other hand, exam ples of areas in Norway and Sweden may be found where the number of visits during the weekend account for a larger part of the total number of visits than is the case in the Danish study (Haakenstad 1975, Kardell 1972). Saastamoinen (1979) has contributed to an explanation of the tendency demonstrated in Table 9.4, that the number of visits per day is somewhat larg er on Tuesdays and Wednesdays than on the rest of weekdays, because he finds that visits to a skiing trail in a forest in Rovaniemi by schools, compa nies, and other organizations are especially intensive on those days. In northern Scandinavian forests, where the conditions are favourable for skiing, visit fluctuations through the year differ considerably from the results found in Denmark. February and March are among the most visited months, while May is among the least visited, and the range of variation is relatively large (Haakenstad 1975, Saastamoinen 1979, Saastamoinen & Sievänen 1981). It is evident that the length of the period with good snow for skiing in fluences the visit variations through the year in these areas, which is also demonstrated clearly by Saastamoinen and Sievänen (1981) as they investi gated the variation through the year in forests partly in North Finland (around Rovaniemi), and partly in South Finland (around Kerava). This survey shows that it is possible to affect the variation through the year considerably; an illu minated cross-country skiing trail in the forest near Rovaniemi resulted in a visit variation through the year on Wednesday evenings almost similar to the variation through the year for Sundays at midday. The variation through the year on Wednesday evenings around Kerava, where there is no illuminated 253 Forest recreation trail, is completely different with close to zero visits during the period of No vember-January. Most of the investigations compared have in common that visits are espe cially intensive in July and August (cf. Table 9.4). Presumably, a contributing factor is the tourist visits culminating in these months. In addition, May has a large number of forest visits as this month is a pronounced foliation month (Kardell 1982, Koch 1984). Concerning the berry picking in autumn, there is no doubt that for some areas this will be the most intensive season. Geographical use distribution within the forest Just to know the number of visits in a certain forest is not always sufficient information when planning and managing for recreation. It is of interest to know how the visitors are distributed within a single forest area. In Denmark, a technique has been used with success by Koch (1984) and Jensen (1992). Figure 9.4 shows a result of the use of this technique: when making inter views in the particular forest area, the respondents have been asked to draw the route of their forest visit on a detailed map (practically all respondents found this little exercise very interesting and amusing - and not difficult). As shown in the figure, it is obvious that the eastern part of the forest is the most popular. It is close to the city nearby and the two major parking lots. A considerable variation in the geographical use intensity within the sin gle forest area is found in several surveys, for example, in Norway (Oslo marka) by Haakenstad (1975), in Sweden (Bogesundslandet and Linköping) by Kardell (1972 & 1982), and in Finland (Sievänen 1989). Kardell (1972) finds the largest geographical use distribution in autumn. This condition is explained by the fact that visitors are picking berries and mushrooms at this time of the year. This observation is probably valid for many forest areas in Norway and Finland as well, as in both countries it is a tradition to pick ber ries and mushrooms. This activity has just started to become popular among the Danes. It is also important to know how many visitors stick to the forest road and trail system and how many do not. Two Danish surveys by Koch (1984) and Jensen (1992) show that approximately 15-20 % of the visitors are walking outside the roads and trails (more men than women and less single visitors). A similar percentage is found in a survey from Iceland in a forest area near Akureyri (Blöndal 1991). In Sweden, Kardell (1982) found that 5 % did not stick to the forest road and trail system in two forest areas. In Norway, more younger people and more people during the summer are found walking outside the road and trail system (Haakenstad 1972). Finally, a Finnish survey from two areas close to Helsinki concludes that: "...the recreationists visit terrain without trails nearly every time they visit a recreation area" (Kellomäki 1977). 254 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 255 Forest recreation Figure 256 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 9.5 Distribution of the Danish forest visitors according to activities pursued during the latest visit to the forest (Koch 1978). Main activities What kind of activities do visitors pursue during their visits to the forests? This question is of great importance when managing for recreation in a mul tiple-use context. Figure 9.5 shows the distribution of Danish forest visitors. It is interesting that walking, and enjoying and studying nature are the most frequent activities, while the more "consuming" activities like fishing, hunting and making (legal) use of products from the forest, for example, picking berries and mushrooms, collecting nuts, moss and lichen are the least frequent in Denmark (a total of less than 5 %). 257 Forest recreation When comparing activities in the Nordic countries, it is found that activi ties like walking, cycling and exercising in general are relatively popular in all countries. Activities where we really find differences are berry and mushroom picking: participation rates in Finland are more than 70 % (Ulkoilututkimus 1979), and in some specific areas in Norway and Sweden rates up to 50 % have been observed (Kardell & Pehrson 1978, Kardell & Holmer 1985, Aasetre 1993). These are rates far above what are seen in Denmark. Denmark and the other Nordic countries are different also when it comes to winter activities like cross-country skiing. Mainly due to lack of snow, ski ing is very seldom possible in Denmark, while in some areas in the other Nor dic countries it is clearly the main activity during the winter time. For example, Saastamoinen and Sievänen (1981) conclude: "The recreational use of urban forests has a special importance during the skiing period in Finland". Undoubtedly, this conclusion applies to Norway and Sweden as well (as a point of interest, there is actually only a couple of illuminated cross-country skiing trail in Denmark!). Group size and transportation to the forest From Table 9.5 it can be seen that the Danes walk alone in the forest a little less frequently than the Swedes, the Norwegians, and especially the Finns. Perhaps fear of the forest is greater in Denmark, a densely populated agricul tural country, than in the other Nordic countries? The Finns seem to walk alone much more often than all the other Scandinavians (here it is important to be aware of the fact that the Finnish survey is restricted to urban forests). The figures in Table 9.6 also reflect some minor differences in recre ational behaviour in the Nordic countries. In this case, in connection with the choice of the means of transportation to the forest, the number of visitors who walk to the forest seems to be largest in Norway, while the number of visitors using a car is largest in Denmark. Common to all the countries is the fact that less than 10 % use public transportation. Table 9.5 Percentage share of the forest visits with a group size of one person. Results from four selected Nordic surveys. Sweden: (Fritid—friluftsliv 1974) 16 O/ /o Norway: (Friluftsliv -undersokelse 1975) 18 % Finland: (Sievänen 1992a) a 67 % Denmark: (Koch 1978) 13 % a) Urban forests 258 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 9.6 Distribution according to the means of transportation used to get to the forest. Re sults from four Nordic surveys. 9.3 Preferences of the population If an estimate of the importance of forests for outdoor recreation is wanted, a quantitative survey of how and how much forests are used for outdoor recrea tion is not sufficient. It is essential to try to form an estimate of the quality of outdoor recreation experiences, which leads to a study of wishes/preferences of the population and forest visitors as regards planning and management of the forest. What kind of forest do the Nordic forest visitors prefer? This question will be covered in more detail in the chapters by Christina Axelsson Lindgren and Minna Komulainen. Here I will only discuss preferences in relation to environ mental, management and recreational aspects. Environmental aspects refer to the influences the landscape manager does not control (e.g. climate and noise from aeroplanes). In a Danish survey by Koch and Jensen (1988), these kind of influences have only been tested by one verbal stimulus: "silence". It is notable that this influence reaches the highest average estimate of all (100) verbal stimuli used. Haakenstad (1972) finds similar results in his survey in the Oslo region in Norway. However, the inter pretation of this result is rather complex. It is hardly the physical silence alone which is so important. Supposedly, bird song, for example, is compatible with "silence"? Perhaps this result really reveals more about an important reason for forest visits than it would be possible to uncover by a number of more direct questions. But, presumably, the impression of the word "silence" varies from person to person, place to place, and from one time to another. (In addition, Norway3 Sweden b Finland0 Denmark0 On foot/ski 59 43 33 27 Horse - 1 Bicycle 2 4 15 7 Moped, motorbike, scooter 1 0 - 2 Car 33 47 43 55 Bus, train 3 4 5 6 Other 2 0 3 0 Total 100 100 100 100 Sources: a) Friluftsliv -i undersokelse 1975. b) Fritid - friluftsliv 1974. c) Ulkoilututkimus 1979. d) Koch 1978 259 Forest recreation Haakenstad found that the weather conditions had an influence on the decision for taking a forest walk.) Management aspects refer to the influences the landscape manager can ad just directly. Here only facilities for forest recreation will be discussed. A gen eral problem attached to the method of measuring preferences for facilities is that the estimate of these arrangements is often based more on an aesthetic cri terion than on a functional one. In Denmark, forest roads and paths are considered a relatively positive el ement in the forest environment, and it can be concluded that the less special ized and "unnatural" a path is, the higher preference it has with the public. The order of precedence of exercise path, riding path or cycling path, corresponds to the public assessment of meeting the three kinds of forest visitors - joggers, riders, and cyclists (Koch & Jensen 1988). Also, Hultman (1983) finds that forest roads and paths reach a relatively high assessment in Sweden. This is by far the case in countries where quite a few new forest roads are established in connection with large cuttings - and wilderness areas. Aasetre (1992) lists quite many surveys where the results indicate a rather mixed feeling for forest roads and paths among Norwegian forest visitors. Recreational aspects refer to the other forest visitors' influence on the quality of a forest visit. Not surprisingly, it is found that the less other forest visitors a Danish forest visitor meets on his way, the higher quality is attribut ed to the forest visit in general (Figure 9.6). Similar results have been found in Norway (Haakenstad 1975). According to Koch & Jensen (1988), the forest visitors can be divided into three popularity groups according to the opinion of the Danish population: (1) the most popular group consists of families, riders, and joggers, (2) the second group consists of cyclists and hunters, and (3) the least popular group consists of motorists and moped riders (Figure 9.6). In Norway, Haakenstad (1975) has also found a certain aversion to motoring in the forest. Not surprisingly, great differences are found in the preferences of different segments of the popula tion, as, in general, there is most sympathy for the type of visitors to whom the individual feels most related to, and considerably less sympathy for the rest. Concluding remarks In the above, primarily mean estimates are referred to. However, in conclu sion it is important to notice that if a landscape manager seeks to consider the interests of the "average" person only, he will only satisfy a few people; whereas a varied supply of opportunities that is in harmony with the sur roundings and the different wishes of the visitors, can provide for the interests of a lot more people. In addition, surveys have shown that the managers' own preferences, or their perception of the preferences of the population, do not always correspond to the actual preferences of the population, for example, in connection with recreation facilities (Jensen 1990). 260 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 9.6 The Danish population's mean assessment of meeting various types of forest visi tors, depending on their number (7: highest score, 1: lowest score) (Koch & Jensen 1988). It is also interesting to make a note of a classification of the kind of com ments Danish respondents in the survey by Koch and Jensen (1988) have put forward on the postal questionnaires. Of a total of 1,075 comments, 31 % were related to recreation facilities including recreational use-related influences, while, for example, the silvicultural system plus the choice of tree species plus the tending of stands only got a total of 4 % of the comments! This result in dicates the need for detailed and comprehensive preference surveys. Insuffi cient knowledge of the different preferences of individual forest visitors might easily result in the landscape manager primarily seeking to comply with the wishes of the more articulated groups, which does not necessarily provide the best solutions. This is expressed by Gregory (1972) as landscape management in conformity with "the squeaking wheel principle". Finally, Reunala (1984) points out that preference estimations can be use ful for some purposes, but maybe their usefulness is more limited than gener ally believed. This might be due to forest experience being much wider than it appears, for example, it can include also symbolic values such as the forest as a mother symbol, and as an archetype. 261 Forest recreation 9.4 Nature interpretation and nature schools Before a description of the conditions in the individual Nordic countries (based on Naturvägledning... 1990), a short and more general discussion of the subject will be given. In all Nordic countries nature interpretation is considered to be a very im portant part of both recreation and tourist policies. Furthermore, in many coun tries all over the world nature interpretation is considered to be one of the means of carrying out a modern nature protection policy. Such a policy does not only endeavour to protect strategic areas and formulate restrictions on those using nature, but also to increase understanding of conservation of the environment and species. The Outdoor Life Project Group of the Nordic Council of Ministers has agreed on a common Nordic definition of nature interpretation (Naturvägled ning... 1990): "Nature interpretation is dissemination of feelings and knowledge about na ture. Nature interpretation aims at increasing understanding of the basic eco logical and cultural relations and of the part people play in nature. This way, the possibilities of positive experiences in nature and the possibilities of in creasing concern for the environment of the individual and of society as a whole are improved". The same project group has set up seven important subaims for nature in terpretation. Nature interpretation can contribute to: 1) Encouraging simple outdoor recreation on the conditions of nature and in conformity with Nordic traditions. 2) Counteracting disturbances and damages to sensitive parts of nature. 3) Increasing the understanding of the necessity of different kinds of environ mental and nature protection. 4) Contributing to a mutual understanding between landowners and the differ ent groups of recreational forest visitors. 5) Increasing the understanding of how people use and influence nature seen in the perspective of cultural heritage. 6) Disseminating knowledge of how human activities influence the ecological system. 7) Encouraging development in harmony with nature and natural resources. Denmark Nature interpretation is not a new concept in Denmark. In the 19505, nature interpretation was already included in information on nature, through signs, leaflets, exhibitions, guided trips, movies, etc. This work is still in progress. The National Forest and Nature Agency alone has produced about 100 leaf- 262 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries lets on walking tours. Some of these have been translated into English and German. In the 19605, the first Danish nature school was formed outside Copenha gen. Today, there are about 25 nature schools which are run by the National Forest and Nature Agency and the local municipalities together, and other 25 nature schools which are run by the municipalities alone. During a one day vis it, the class follows a program devised by the principal of the nature school. The aim of the visit is to give the child an understanding of nature through di rect experiences. The forestry organizations have also produced information materials. One example is the teaching material "Forests in Schools, Schools in Forests" (Figure 9.7). Another important aspect is the establishment of "forest/nature kindergar tens". These are defined as kindergartens where the children, all year round and without facilities, are out in a forest area all the day. The interest in this kind of day-care has increased dramatically in Denmark: in 1991, 66 "nature kindergartens" were registered and in 1993 the number is estimated to be 3-4 times higher. Normally it is the municipality which organizes this type of day care in cooperation with the local forest administrations. An analysis in the 1980 s showed that non-governmental organizations (ornithologists, scouts, anglers, etc.) were doing comprehensive and valuable work for nature interpretation, but the different interests were not coordinated and the work was done by unpaid volunteers. Therefore, the Ministry of the Figure 9.7 Children participating in the Danish program "Forest in Schools, Schools in Forests", Photo: 0. Vorre. 263 Forest recreation Environment decided to arrange nature interpretation more formally on a na tional level. Nature interpretation met with a favourable reception from the Danish population. During 1987-88, more than 50,000 people had contact with nature interpreters and their activities. Special training in nature interpretation does not exist in Denmark. People with quite different educations are used as nature interpreters, and the National Forest and Nature Agency lias devised a compulsory further training pro gramme for the nature interpreters. Until today (1993), about 120 persons have taken part in this education. Norway The Norwegian parliament has recently taken a number of initiatives to strengthen outdoor recreation, among other things through "education, instruction and information". In an account about national parks in Norway from the mid-80s, a more direct attempt to deliver information and interpreta tion in cooperation with the national park management is proposed. Activities and interpretation of outdoor recreation have been taken care of by non-governmental organizations and the educational system. Tourist asso ciations, hunting and fishing associations, orienteering, skiing, and scout or ganizations have all played a part in further stimulating developments. In recent years, the educational system has become more active as regards outdoor recreation. One of its aims is that all pupils, at least once, participate in a "camp school". The forest authorities also contribute through the project "Learn with the Forest" to learning in the recreational areas near the school. Several nature interpretation centres have been established in connection with nature protection projects (Figure 9.8). There are leaflets which provide information on nature reserves, other nature conservation areas, and attractive outdoor recreation areas. The latest hiking maps are a combination of a map and an information brochure, where nature conditions are also described. Many municipalities hand out maps of outdoor recreation areas and opportu nities for activities; forest or "nature" trails have also been established over a number of years throughout the country. For further description of nature in terpretation in Norway, see Vistad (1993). Sweden Within the Swedish compulsory school system, nature schools are established as an extension of education on the environment and nature. In this way, "the child's curiosity and love of adventure are stimulated through direct experi ences". The first nature school was established in 1982. Today there are about 25 schools. In recent years, a variant has been established, the so called "nature and culture school". To some extent, the nature schools also offer 264 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 9.8 A nature interpretation centre in Jostedalsbreen National Park, Norway. Photo: R. Bierach. their services to the adult part of the population in the form of guided walks excursions, lectures, etc. As mentioned earlier, the forest organizations in Denmark and Norway have prepared teaching material. Actually, Sweden is the pioneer country in Scandinavia through its programme "Learn with the forest". The establishment of visitor centres spread over the country has been for the benefit of both outdoor recreation and tourism. These information centres have been established in connection with nature reserves and other places that have a great number of tourist visits. At present, about 25 centres are spread over the country. Different kinds of nature trails are becoming more common. At a rough es timate, there are 200 established nature trails in the country. Several different ways of disseminating information are used. The most usual way is through signs, but also leaflets, audio-tapes and guides are used. Finally it is worth mentioning that Sweden has put a lot of effort in information about the Right of Public Access (Figure 9.9). Finland The utilization of national parks and other conservation areas is increasing in Finland. This has led to the establishment of visitor centres in some of these areas. The aim is to comply with increased interest from the public and tour ism through raising the level of service. 265 Forest recreation Figure 9.9 Swedish information leaflet on "the Right of Public Access" 266 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Nature interpretation is also carried out at a local level. The bigger towns have for several years arranged free guided walking tours in the green open spaces. These tours are often guided by students and have a specific theme. Like in the rest of the Nordic countries, the non—governmental organizations arrange nature excursions, camps, etc. all over the country for children as well as adults. Since 1969, mushroom consultants have been trained, and from the mid 1980 s herb consultants have also been trained. The main objective at the courses has been to supply the students with sufficient knowledge to know and to distinguish the different mushrooms and herbs and to treat and prepare them correctly. The first courses of "Wilderness guides" were carried out at the end of the 19705. The main elements in the training have been wilderness skills, ecology, and customer-minded service. A certain interest in employing the trained wil derness guides can be found in the tourist associations and the hotel chains, and many of the trained wilderness guides have started their own businesses. In addition, a lot of leaflets and maps are handed out or are on sale in order to promote nature interpretation and information about attractive outdoor rec reation areas. Most of these exist in a Finnish as well as in a Swedish version. Some can also be found in English and German. Iceland With the increase in leisure time of the Icelanders, and the growing number of foreign tourists, the need for nature interpretation in Iceland has increased. As well as the other Nordic countries, Iceland has produced information about nature areas in the form of, for example, signs and leaflets. A relatively large part of the leaflets is translated into English, German, and French, and a part even into another Nordic language. The Icelandic tourist association was founded in 1927. It offers various kinds of trips and walking tours. The guides working with the tourist groups are trained in nature, culture and language. This training was initiated in 1965. In some national parks, daily nature interpretation is offered during the tourist season in the form of guided walking tours. Special interpretation for children has been carried out with great success. Guides are also found along hiking trails in the parks, where they concentrate on explaining about the vul nerability of nature. In preparatory school, a part of the teaching is carried out in nature. It is considered to be very important that the teachers should have increased possi bilities of taking the pupils outdoors in nature. In 1985, the first and till now only nature school was founded within the framework of a non-governmental organization. The school is situated near the capital Reykjavik. School classes can stay overnight but most classes come on one day visits. The teachers have 267 Forest recreation to arrange for instruction themselves as there is no "nature teacher" at the na ture school. Closing remarks Common to all Nordic countries is the aim to educate children and young people through information about nature and environment. These countries also have in common that to a great extent they make use of special training of nature interpreters. It appears to be very impressive when the visitors meet qualified and well-trained people in nature; perhaps even more impressive than other media such as exhibitions, leaflets, movies, etc. However, these methods are very valuable, too. In all Nordic countries, a large number of leaflets and maps are published with information about attractive outdoor rec reation areas. As regards development in tourism, nature interpretation is of fundamental importance. It helps the tourists to enjoy their experience of nature and con tributes to their knowledge of vulnerable ecosystems. Basic and common to the Nordic countries is an increasing demand and need for nature interpretation. There are several reasons. One is improved knowledge of the necessity of a rich and varied environment. Another is the intense competition between, on the one hand, the landowners' interests, and on the other hand, the users of outdoor recreation opportunities. A third reason for an increasing need for information is the growing number of tourists from other countries who emphasize outdoor recreation. The methods used in the field of nature interpretation in the Nordic countries are more or less similar, and work with the concept has been intensified in all the countries since the 1980 s. 9.5 Urban forests and green spaces Recreation in - or close to - urban settings is a relative conception, which has different meanings according to the situation, and it is to some extent inter preted differently in the Nordic countries. The following short discussion, mainly based on two sources (Nserrekreation - friluftsliv... 1987, Naturväg ledning... 1990), gives a general overview of the importance of recreation pos sibilities in an urban setting. A more detailed discussion of outdoor recreation in urban settings is given by, for example, Gäsdal (1993). Great importance is attached to good possibilities of outdoor recreation in everyday life in all these countries. In this connection, it should be mentioned that the absolutely most important reason for the afforestation program in Ice land is to increase the outdoor recreation possibilities of the population in ur ban forest settings. In the ambitious Danish afforestation program (where the 268 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries objective is to double the Danish forest area during the next approximately 100 years) urban afforestation is also included as a very important element. A trend is that increasing traffic, new traffic barriers, and expanding towns have increased the distance to "nature" and made access to the urban open spaces more difficult. In all Nordic countries, the municipality has the main responsibility for management of recreation interests in urban settings. There fore, an important part of local planning is formed by physical planning and management - in which outdoor recreation possibilities have to be taken into account. The groups with low mobility especially need good recreation areas in ur ban settings. Many senior citizens and walking-impaired citizens cannot choose their recreation area themselves. The same thing applies to certain handicapped groups (Figure 9.10). Although many Nordic towns have relatively close contact with nature when seen in general perspective of the Western World, it is evident that a growing segment of Nordic people will live in towns with little contact with nature. This is unfortunate, not only because of the values of outdoor recrea tion, but also because a lack of experiences in nature in childhood might create an adult population without any (or with a feigned) interest in managing and preserving the natural resources of society. Figure 9.10 It is important for handicapped groups to have the opportunity to enjoy recreation activities in nature. Photo: J. Holt. 269 Forest recreation 9.6 Future General perspectives in forest recreation "It is difficult to foretell - especially about the future" a Danish jack-of-all trades once said. This is very much to the point for the contents of this sec tion. To give an estimate of future outdoor recreation applying to all Nordic countries will only be an informed guess. Teigland (1990) expresses some ideas about outdoor recreation of the 1990 s in Norway. Kaltenborn (1993) sets up some hypotheses on how chang ing society might influence outdoor recreation in the future. Based on my own and my two Norwegian colleagues' conceptions, the following section will try to look at some tendencies in the Nordic countries with the reservation in mind that there probably will be some differences in the trends in each individual country. If we concentrate on the most popular and traditional sides of outdoor rec reation like, for example, walking and bicycling in the forest, and on fishing and cross-country skiing, it appears that the level of activity has been rather constant during the last 20-25 years. However, it is not just a Nordic phenom enon that the traditional outdoor recreational habits have been rather steady. A survey from the USA has shown that only very few activities have changed in a dramatic way, even during a period of 20 years (Bevins & Wilcox 1980). Presumably, the reason for this is to be found in the fact that Nordic people as well as US citizens do not easily change their traditional hobbies, especially if they furthermore have invested a lot of time and money in developing skills and buying equipment. Such investments have taken place on a relatively large scale during the last couple of decades. However, the relatively steady outdoor recreation pattern does not exclude the occurrence of certain expected changes - and in some cases they are already in evidence: - Increased unorganized outdoor recreation in forest/nature (e.g. the jogging/ fitness movement, waterbased recreation and a greater interest/awareness of nature in general). - Increased organized outdoor recreation in forest/nature (e.g. the scout move ment). - Increase in the types of sport that use forest as sports ground (e.g. orienteer ing). - Increased risk of conflicts because of the specialized use of nature as recre ative area (e.g. snowmobiling vs. cross-country skiing). - A wish for "thrill-seeking" activities (e.g. mountainbikes, paintball/survival games). And finally there seems to be trends towards: - A wish for increased quality of leisure time as well as an increase in tourism. 270 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries If the above mentioned tendencies appear to be correct, these processes repre sent a big challenge for all people involved in forest recreation and forest management. In this connection, it is interesting that according to foreign surveys, the norms and values that people are introduced to in childhood and youth form the basis for their future interests (Sofranko & Nolan 1972). In addition, a sur vey from 1991 (Recreation today... 1991) shows that a majority of Americans (59 %) began their favorite recreational activity in their childhood. If these results apply to the Nordic countries too, the result might be a de cline in recruiting to what could be referred to as more "traditional" Nordic forest recreation activities (such as walking in the forest, berry and mushroom picking and cross-country skiing). The earlier generations who were taught to appreciate these activities will be replaced by generations with a different or at least a more diversified basic attitude. Also, increasing urbanization might influence participation in the traditional "harvesting" -activities. A demographic alteration which can be expected is the tendency to a high er level of education of the Nordic people. It is, of course, difficult to define what effects this will have on forest recreation, but it might lead to an increase in activities which at present are practised mainly by segments of the popula tion with a relatively high level of education (e.g. wilderness backpacking and orienteering). Finally, it could be discussed how probable changes in societies, like large (and permanent?) unemployment, a larger and more mobile and wealthy group of retired pensioners, relatively small youth cohorts, and a change in the ethnic composition of the Nordic population will influence trends in recreational pat terns. As scientists, we probably just ought to realize that our knowledge of the facts and the alteration processes is not sufficient to form a basis for precise predictions about developments in the long term (Figure 9.11). Area competition When working with management of nature and environmental qualities and the resulting opportunities for experiences, it is important to distinguish between two main types of areas. One type is areas like national parks, con servation areas, and outdoor recreation areas which society has set aside for the sake of nature protection and/or recreational purposes. Even if the protec tion interests, through a considerable effort (and a presumable increase in support from the population), would be able to extend such areas in the years to come, they would hardly account for more than a very small percentage of the total area of the Nordic countries. In the rest of the area (maybe 90-95 %), outdoor recreation interests have to compete with other user interests - such as town, industrial and traffic extensions. In this respect, multiple-use plan ning will become of essential importance so that all interests are assessed in connection with the future development of an area. Forest recreation 271 Figure 9.11 What will the future bring in forest recreation? Photos: F. S. Jensen, O. Vorre, E Oksanen. 272 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries As regards the areas which are set aside for nature protection and/or out door recreation, the main problem will be to maintain the various nature and environment qualities simultaneously with the improvement of facilities for different users. This is caused by a variety of wishes and demands from differ ent user groups which cannot be met simultaneously everywhere. Presumably, the future will show the necessity of increased user influence in the planning phase, just as there will be a demand for a clear overview of the types of experiences/qualities that are offered in a special area - whether it is qualities like solitude, unspoilt nature or improved recreation facilities and services. To what extent a considerable improvement in facilities is wanted in con nection with outdoor recreation cannot be described unambiguously. In the long term, it might prove more reasonable in terms of economy as well as ecol ogy to teach visitors to use the nature areas in the most careful way and in a way that needs minimum improvement and maintenance of facilities. If such a strategy is chosen, the years to come will be a considerable challenge to gov ernmental as well as non-governmental organizations to develop effective ed ucation and nature interpretation programs. Such programs should also include the increasing number of tourists from the more densely populated countries in Central Europe that are expected in northern Europe. User fees The tradition of relatively free access still prevails, but significant increases in user fees for some of the more capital-intensive opportunities have occurred since 1980 all over the Western World. These trends are likely to continue and be expanded to other opportunities in most countries. It seems certain that the days of widespread relatively free publicly provid ed outdoor recreation opportunities are coming to an end in some countries, es pecially in Canada and the United States. In the Nordic countries, the practice of making land, especially state-owned land, readily available at low costs to the users, and the principle of Everyman's Right (Right of Public Access), have modulated use of many of the rationales for fees. These cultural traditions will probably persist in the near future and limit fee increases. The largest in creases will probably be for activities requiring special capital investments, for example horse riding, fishing, etc. (Driver & Koch 1986). What is happening in the United States? It is not an unknown phenomenon that the trends seen in the U.S. sooner or later appear in one way or another in Europe. (In this context, comparative studies like the workshop proceedings on long-distance trails, edited by Sievänen (1992 b), is of great value). In conclusion, it might be interesting 273 Forest recreation briefly to call attention to some of the U.S. trends related to forest recreation (Cordell 1992): - The public is more concerned and informed than ever before about the envi ronment. - Traditional resource management priorities are being challenged. - Agency priorities are tending towards amenities management. - Congress is shifting budgets to fund amenities management. - New partnerships and expectations are being forged. - The public has greater awareness and more avenues for involvement and in fluence. - Decision-making has become more complex and more scrutinized. - Recreation management must be factually, not emotionally, based in order to compete with other resources and to meet intense scrutiny. - Decline in available leisure time. - Increasing immigration. - Increasing number of "DINK's" (Dual Income No Kids). - Increasing growth in metro areas. - 1970 s trend of rural growth reversed. - Increasing growth of the non-white population. And what does it all mean? It might , for example, mean: - More urban people with less understanding of natural systems, but a growing interest in how the agencies and owners manage them. - A greater diversity of people with less time and a growing demand for a di versity of high quality recreation opportunities. - Greater place attachment and interest in learning and seeing (non-consump tive activities such as bird watching versus hunting; more fishing will change to catch and release). - Management emphasis needs to focus on accommodations, appearance, in formation, education, and being in touch. - A greater need for useful data in relation to outdoor recreation. Perspectives in forest recreation research The Nordic forest recreation research has been fluctuating from around 1970 until today. It seems that the individual countries have all had their "vigorous" periods as regards research within this field. Sweden and Norway have been the pioneering countries, while it seems that Finland has had the most steady research over the years. The same relative steadiness is found in Denmark, but with considerably less resources availa ble. In recent years, Norway has contributed positively by establishing an out door recreation research group as a subdivision of NINA (Norwegian Institute for Nature Research). This research group has published a competent mono graph, describing outdoor recreation research in Norway (Kaltenborn & 274 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Vorkinn 1993). In Iceland, it has not yet been possible to establish a research group for outdoor recreation. Research in outdoor recreation in the Nordic countries up till now can be characterized by the need for descriptive studies (and mainly of the adult pop ulation). The following examples are a sample of future research topics given by Kaltenborn (1993), which more or less seems to fit all the Nordic countries: - Repeated surveys to identify trends. - Motives, attitudes and barriers. - Obtained benefits, both individual and social. - Effects of management interventions, such as nature interpretation. - Retired pensioners and children seen in the perspective of outdoor recrea tion. - The "close-to-home" outdoor recreational life. Besides outlining some of the tasks for the future, the list above also clear ly reveals the challenge involved in the discipline, outdoor recreation re search, being situated somewhere between natural and social science. As regards future research, the following items seem to be of essential im portance in order to complete research of high quality in the relatively small research environments in the individual Nordic countries: - Outdoor recreation research groups in the individual countries are secured a stable economic funding to enable continuity of the work. - Coordination of research between the individual countries in order to secure optimal exploitation of the limited resources. - Liaison projects are initiated to make use of larger external sources of know ledge and funding, like, for example, the European Union (EU). - Exchange of scientists. - Common research seminars. - Construction of interdisciplinary research groups. In conclusion, cooperation seems to be one of the keywords for future progress in Nordic outdoor recreation research. References Aasetre, J. 1992. Friluftsliv og skogbruk: en litteraturstudie. (Outdoor recreation and forestry: literature review.) Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Utredning 34. 52 pp. (In Norwegian.) Aasetre, J. 1993. Friluftsliv i skog. (Outdoor recreation in forest.) In: Kaltenborn, B.P. & Vorkinn, M. (eds.). Värt friluftsliv: aktiviteter, miljokrav og for valtningsbehov. (Our outdoor recreation: activities, environmental aspects and administration requirements.) Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Temahefte 3: 25-32. (In Norwegian.) Bevins, M.I. & Wilcox, D.P. 1980. Outdoor recreation participation: analysis of national surveys, 1959-1978. University of Vermont, Vermont Agricultural Experimental Station Bulletin 686. 275 Forest recreation Blöndal, S. 1991. Forest recreation in Iceland. Unpublished. 19 pp. Cordell, K. 1992. Keeping recreation management on top in an information age. Papers for the Utah State University Recreation Shortcourse. Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, Athens GA. Unpublished. Driver, B.L. & Koch, N.E. 1986. Cross-cultural trends in user fees charged at national outdoor recreation areas. Proceedings from 18th lUFRO World Con gress, Division 6, Ljubljana, p. 370-385. Fridberg, T. 1989. Danskerne og kulturen: de 16-74 -äriges fritidsaktiviteter i 1987, sammenlignet med 1975 og 1964. (The Danes and culture: the leisure activi ties of the 16-74 year old people in 1987, compared to the situation in 1975 and 1964.) Socialforskningsinstituttet, Rapport 89:8. 181 pp. (In Danish.) Friluftsliv-undersokelse 1974. Summary: Outdoor life study 1994. 1975. Statistisk Sentralbyrä, Norges Offisielle Statistikk A 725. 133 pp. Fritid - friluftsliv. En undersökning av vanor och önskemäl hos den vuxna tätortsbe folkningen 1973. (Leisure time - outdoor recreation. A study of the habits and preferences of the adult population in urban areas in 1973.) 1974. Statens Naturvärdsverk 1974:20. (In Swedish.) Gäsdal, O. 1993. Uteliv i byen. (Outdoor recreation in towns.) In: Kaltenborn, B.P. & Vorkinn, M. (eds.). Värt friluftsliv: aktiviteter, miljokrav og forvaltningsbe hov. (Our outdoor recreation: Activities, environmental aspects and adminis tration requirements.) Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Temahefte 3: 33—41. (In Norwegian.) Gregory, G.R. 1972. Forest resource economics. The Ronald Press Company, New York. 548 pp. Haakenstad, H. 1972. Skogbehandling i et utfartsomräde: en opinionsundersokel.se om Oslomarka. Summary: Forest management in an area of outdoor life: an investigation of public opinion about Oslomarka. Meldinger fra Norges Land brukshogskole 51( 16): 1-79. Haakenstad, H. 1975. Skogskjotsel i rekreasjonsomräder: skog og friluftsliv i to mo dellomräder i Oslomarka. Summary: Forestry in recreation areas: forest and outdoor recreation in two model areas in Oslomarka. Norges Landbrukshog skole, Institutt for Skogskjotsel, As. 174 pp. Heglebäck, T. 1978. Rörligt friluftsliv i tre rekreationsomräden i Stockholmstrakten: Nackareservatet, Järvafältet och Lovön. (Motion recreation in three recreation areas in Stockholm region: Nackareservatet, Järvafaltet and Lovön.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 10. 84 pp. (In Swedish.) Hultman, S.-G. 1983. Allmänhetens bedömning av skogsmiljöers lämplighet för friluftsliv. 2. En rikstäckande enkät. Summary: Public judgement of forest environments as recreation areas. 2. A national survey. Sveriges lantbruksuni versitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 28. 91 pp. Jaatinen, E. 1974. Recreational utilization of Helsinki's forests. Folia Forestalia 186. 35 pp. Jensen, F.S. 1990. Landscape managers' and politicians' perception of the forest and landscape preferences of the population. Proceedings from XIX lUFRO World Congress, Division 6, Montreal, p. 61-72. 276 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Jensen, F.S. 1992. Befolkningens anvendelse af Vestamager til friluftsliv, 1985-88. (The utilization of Vestamager for recreation, 1985-88.) Forskningscentret for Skov & Landskab, Lyngby. Unpublished. 138 pp. (In Danish.) Kaltenborn, B.P. 1993. Hva sä? - Noen utfordringer i forskningen pä og forvaltnin gen av friluftsliv. (What then? - A few challenges to research on the adminis tration of outdoor recreation.) In: Kaltenborn, B.P. & Vorkinn, M. (eds.). Värt friluftsliv: aktiviteter, miljokrav og forvaltningsbehov. (Our outdoor recrea tion: activities, environmental aspects and administration requirements.) Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Temahefte 3: 136-139. (In Norwegian.) Kaltenborn, B.P. & Vorkinn, M. (eds.). 1993. Värt friluftsliv: aktiviteter, miljokrav og forvaltningsbehov. (Our outdoor recreation: activities, environmental aspects and administration requirements.) Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Tema hefte 3. 141 pp. (In Norwegian.) Kardell, L. 1972. Bogesundslandet som rekreationskälla: en studie av ett skogsom rädes utnyttjande till rörligt friluftsliv. Summary: Bogesundslandet as a source of recreation: a study of the utilization of a forest area for motion recreation. Forskningsstiftelsen Skogsarbeten, Redogörelse 4. 40 pp. Kardell, L. 1979. Farfars friluftsliv - om han hade nägot. (Grandfather's outdoor rec reation - if he had any.) Sveriges Skogsvärdsförbunds Tidskrift 1: 6-21. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. 1982. Hur Linköpingsborna utnyttjar sina stadsnära skogar? (How the people of Linköping utilize the surrounding forests?) Sveriges lantbruksuni versitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 23. 86 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. & Holmer, M. 1985. Friluftslivets förändringar pä Bogesundslandet 1969-1982. (The changes in outdoor recreation in Bogesundslandet, 1969 1982.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 33. 117 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. & Pehrson, K. 1978. Stockholmarnas friluftsliv: vanor och önskemäl. En enkät- och intervjustudie. Summary: Stockholmers outdoors: use of nature areas. A mail questionnaire and a home interview study. Sveriges lantbruksu niversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 13. 112 pp. Kellomäki, S. 1977. Polut ulkoilun kanavoinnissa. Summary: Potential of trails in guiding recreational activity. Silva Fennica 11(4): 263-268. Koch, N.E. 1978. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. I del. Befolkningens anven delse af landets skove. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part I: The use of the country's forests by the population. Det Forstlige Forsogsvaesen i Danmark, vol. 35: 285^451. Koch, N.E. 1980. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. II del. Anvendelsen af skov ene, regionalt betragtet. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part II: The use of forests considered regionally. Det Forstlige Forsogsvassen i Danmark, vol. 37: 73-383. Koch, N.E. 1984. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. 11l del. Anvendelsen af skov ene, lokalt betragtet. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part III: The use of forests considered locally. Det Forstlige Forsogsvaesen i Danmark, vol. 39: 121-362. Koch, N.E. & Jensen, FS. 1988. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. IV del. Befolkningens onsker til skovenes og det äbne lands udformning. Summary: 277 Forest recreation Forest recreation in Denmark. Part IV: Preferences of the population. Det Forstlige Forsogsvassen i Danmark, vol. 41: 243-516. Levnadsförhällanden 1982-83: Fritid. (Living conditions 1982-83: Leisure time.) Sveriges officielle statistik, Statistiska centralbyrän, Rapport 56. (In Swedish.) Mattsson, L. & Sodal, D.P (eds.). 1989. Multiple use of forests: economics and pol icy. Proceedings of the Conference held in Oslo, Norway, May 1988. Scandi navian Forest Economics 30. 184 pp. Nasrrekreation: friluftsliv og fysisk planlasgning i Norden. (Recreation close to urban areas: outdoor recreation and physical planning in the Nordic countries.) 1987. Nordisk ministerräd, Nord 1987:15/Milj0rapport 1987:4. 164 pp. (In Danish.) Naerrekreation. (Recreation close to urban areas.) 1990. Nordisk Ministerräd, Koben havn. 16 pp. (In Danish.) Naturvägledning i Norden. (Nature interpretation in the Nordic countries.) 1990. Nordisk ministerräd, Nord 1990:52. 66 pp. (In Swedish.) Niemi, 1., Pääkkönen, H., Rajaniemi, V., Laaksonen, S. & Lauri, J. 1991. Vuotuinen ajankäyttö. Ajankäyttötutkimuksen 1987-88 taulukot. (Time use annually. The tables of the time use studies 1987-88.) (In Finnish.) Pouta, E. 1990. Ulkoilualueen virkistyshyötyjen taloudellinen arviointi. (The eco nomic valuation of the recreational benefits of a recreation area.) Pro gradu - tutkielma. Helsingin yliopisto, Kansantaloudellisen metsäekonomian laitos. (In Finnish.) Recreation today: trends and statistics. 1991. Recreation Roundtable, Washington, D.C. Unpublished. 5 pp. Reunala, A. 1984. Forest as symbolic environment. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). 1984. Multiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalls Fenniae 120: 81-85. Saastamoinen, O. 1979. Valaistun hiihtoreitin käytön ajallinen vaihtelu. Summary: Time patterns in the use of an urban skiing route. Silva Fennica 13(1): 101 106. Saastamoinen, O. & Sievänen, T. 1981. Keravan ja Rovaniemen lähimetsien ulkoilukäytön ajallinen vaihtelu. Summary: Time patterns of recreation in urban forests in two Finnish towns. Folia Forestalia 473. 24 pp. Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). 1984. Multi ple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120. 142 pp. Sievänen, T. 1989. The trail inventory and forest recreation. In: Mattsson, L. & Sodal, D.P. (eds.). Multiple use of forests: economics and Policy. Proceedings of the Conference held in Oslo, Norway, May 1988. Scandinavian Forest Eco nomics 30:89-105. Sievänen, T. 1992 a. Aulangon ja Ahveniston ulkoilualueiden käyttöjä kävijät. (The users and utilization of the recreation areas Aulanko and Ahvenisto.) Metsän tutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 415. 70 pp. (In Finnish.) Sievänen, T. (ed.). 1992 b. Nordic Outdoor Recreation: international Comparative Studies. Proceedings of the Workshop held in Siuntio, Finland, 9-10.9.1992. Finnish Forest Research Institute, Research Papers 439. 144 pp. 278 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Sievänen, T. 1993. Kaupunkiväestön ulkoilukäyttäytyminen ja ulkoilualueiden käyttö: Hämeenlinnan ulkoilututkimus. Summary: Outdoor recreation house hold survey in the city of Hämeenlinna. Folia Forestalia 824. 62 pp. Sofranko, A.J. & Nolan, F.M. 1972. Early life experiences and adult sports participa tion. Journal of Leisure Research 4(1). Teigland, J. 1990. Veivalg for norsk friluftsliv i 1990 -ärene. Om nordmenns frilufts liv i 1970 og 1980 -ärene, og perspektivene framover. (Choosing the way for Norwegian outdoor recreation in the 19905. Norwegians' outdoor recreation in the 1970 s and 1980 s and future perpectives.) Lands-konferansen Friluftsliv, juni 1990, Bodo. Unpublished. 11 pp. (In Norwegian.) Tveit, K.J. 1979. Fritid, kultur og kino. Arbeidsrapport fra en kinobruksundersokelse i Stavanger. (Leisure, culture and movies. Working report of a study on the movies visiting activity in Stavanger.) Universitetet i Bergen, Geografisk Institutt. 56 pp. (In Norwegian.) Ulkoilututkimus 1979. (Outdoor recreation study 1979.) 1980. Sisäasianministeriön ympäristönsuojeluosaston julkaisu C 1, n:o 5. 45 pp. (In Finnish.) Vistad, 0.1. 1993. Losing, tering eller sjekking? Om naturrettleing som forvaltning stiltak. (Guiding, teaching or checking? Nature interpretation as a manage ment tool.) In: Kaltenborn, B.P. & Vorkinn, M. (eds.). Värt friluftsliv: aktiv iteter, miljokrav og forvaltningsbehov. (Our outdoor recreation: activities, environmental aspects and administration requirements). Norsk institutt for naturforskning, Femahefte 3: 121-127. (In Norwegian.) Vuolle, P., Telema, R. & Laakso, L. 1986. Näin suomalaiset liikkuvat. (This is the way how the Finns move.) Liikunnan ja kansanterveyden julkaisuja 50. Val tion painatuskeskus, Helsinki. (In Finnish.) 279 Forest aesthetics 10 Forest aesthetics Christina Axelsson Lindgren 1 Abstract Attention has been paid to forest aesthetics mostly in urban and recreational areas, and in areas with exceptional landscape qualities. Due to the Right of Public Access to private land, forest aesthetics is also essential in the country side. The visual appearance of forests is of major concern in many Nordic works of literature, music and painting. Since the 19705, research on forest aesthetics in the Nordic countries has mainly focused of forest interiors. The aesthetics of forests as part of broader landscapes has also been studied to some extent. Physical characteristics of importance to visual appearance seem to be tree species and ages, and to what extent they are mixed, as well as the density and structure of the stands. Experiments in management of the visual qualities of forest have been carried out, for example, in Järavallen and in Furulunds fure in Sweden. Today, computer graphics in combination with geographical information systems and simulation techniques make it possible to create visual scenarios of past and future landscapes. Keywords: aesthetics, landscape, forest structure, perception, preferences, landscape management. ' Nordic Institute for Societal Planning PO.Box 1658, S— 111 86 Stockholm, Sweden 280 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 10.1 Introduction In Finland, Norway and Sweden, forests are larger than any other of the land scape elements. Landscapes are often covered by forests, and only fields, lakes and moors help to open up the scenery. In Denmark and Iceland, the areas covered with forests are much smaller. In these countries, forests are spectacular elements in the open landscapes. Forests play a considerable role in landscape aesthetics in the Nordic coun tries, but general landscape aesthetics is not the scope of this chapter. In con nection with multiple-use forestry, it is most relevant to consider aesthetics that may be influenced by forest management, or by avoiding forestry. This chapter thus deals with forest aesthetics, mainly concerning forest interiors, as these aspects have been most studied in the Nordic countries. To some extent, aesthetics of forests as a part of broader landscapes are also touched upon. In forest aesthetics, the interest is focused on visual evaluation of forests. Attention to forest aesthetics has been paid mostly in urban and recreational areas, and in areas with exceptional visual landscape qualities. Due to the Right of Public Access to private land, forest aesthetics is also essential in countryside forest areas. The chapter concentrates on describing research on forest aesthetics in the Nordic countries from 1970 onwards. Some manage ment essays with great originality are also presented and discussed. 10.2 Cultural importance of forest aesthetics In forestry debate in the Nordic countries, great attention has been paid to for est aesthetics. In several countries there are works analyzing descriptions of forests, above all in literature, but also in art and music. The visual appear ance of forests is of major concern in these descriptions. The complexity of the expectations Norwegian people may attach to a forest area is described in analyses of literature, sketches and photographs especially from Oslomarka (Oraug et al. 1974). Recently, a seminar on nature experiences in Oslo illus trated this theme in psychology, forestry, landscape architecture and art (Naturopplevelse i skog... 1992). The Swedish anthology "Sinnenas skog" alternates between literary descriptions of experiences of forests and descrip tions in popular science of conditions for forest production (Sörlin 1983). A deep cultural approach to the importance of forest in Finland was conducted in the seminar and publication "The forest as a Finnish cultural entity" (Reunala & Virtanen 1987). The importance of forests was discussed in this multidisciplinary meeting from many viewpoints: philosophical, silvicultural, semiotical, aesthetic, etc. A summary of Danish literature on forest aesthetics from around 1900 and onwards has been compiled by Borup (1991). Aesthetic experience of his surroundings has always been important to man. Hjort (1983) states in his dissertation that, in purely agricultural socie- 281 Forest aesthetics ties, aesthetic considerations were a part of the daily cultivation of forest and open land. The skilled craftsmanship in these cultivations has brought about many of the cultural landscapes that today are still appreciated the most. By household multiple-use cultivation, natural vegetation has been formed into meadows, enclosed pastures, dense forests, heaths, burn-beaten land, and so on. At the realization of industrial society in the 1930-19505, when function alism had its era of prosperity in housing architecture, functionalistic forest aesthetics became all the more dominating (Frivold 1991). In the transition from craftsmanship to mechanical and industrial production, matters of design were closely associated with technical development and with the possibilities of mass production. This was the case also in housing architecture. "Function alistic forest aesthetics" (see Frivold 1991) has its roots in the 19th century, when the forest industry was established. The view of forest as a producer of raw material became all the more dominant and effective even-aged mono cultures became increasingly ä la mode. Recently, post-modern trends, that in the last decade have highlighted the complexity of design issues in housing ar chitecture, have also been noticed within forestry in the Nordic countries. Con siderations emphasized in connection with multiple-use forestry and discussions of a multitude of forestry methods and ideals of forests have thus gained renewed relevance. 10.3 Perception of forest stands In the Nordic countries, there is a concentration towards research on percep tion of forest stands. Research on perception of broad-scale forest landscapes is not so usual. Perhaps this is due to the good possibilities in the Nordic countries to wander in the forests. The studies often deal with preferences of forest stands, i.e. which stands are preferred least or most. In environmental psychology, dimensions of experience are used to further express the visual similarities and differences between, for example, forest stands. This approach to environmental perception contains possibilities of enhancing the use of knowledge on visual aspects of forests in multiple-use planning and design situations. In Norway and Finland, studies on people's perceptions of forest stands, mainly concerning preferences, were carried out already in the early 19705. The Norwegian studies (Haakenstad 1972, Lind et ai. 1974) show that mixed forests with both coniferous and deciduous trees of different ages, and with glades that vary the density of the stands, are preferred. The greater the share of old trees in forest stands, the more appreciated they are (Loven 1973, Kel lomäki 1973. Mikola 1973). Similar results are found by Hultman (1983), Kardell (1990) and Savolainen and Kellomäki (1981). In a Finnish study (Pukkala et al. 1988), a pure, old and rather sparsely stocked birch stand got 282 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries the highest preferences for beauty, while pure and old pine stands were the most preferred for recreation (see also Loven 1973, Kellomäki 1973, Savo lainen & Kellomäki 1981). In spruce stands, the mixture of other species con stantly increased the beauty and recreation evaluations. The effect of the tree species depended on the age and size of the trees. In a very young stand, pines and birches were not better liked than spruces (Pukkala et al. 1988). In young coniferous stands, though, the scenic value increased when the proportion of intermixed birch exceeded 20 % (Savolainen & Kellomäki 1981). The benefi cial effects of pines and birches increased as the stands got older. In connection with the adjective sum method used by Pukkala et al. (1988) and several other Finnish studies, it should be kept in mind that the adjective sum does not meas ure exactly scenic beauty or suitability of the stand for recreation. It is simply a sum of different stand parameters, such as variability and originality, which do not always increase amenity (Pukkala et al. 1988). Rather different results are given in a study by Koch and Jensen (1988), where the photos to a large extent show broadleaved deciduous forest common in Denmark. Studies conducted in other Nordic countries have very few pho tos of broadleaved deciduous forest. The Danish subjects like deciduous forest better than coniferous forest, especially in summertime. Beech forest is most preferred. High preferences for beech forest are also found in Sweden (Hult man 1983). Deciduous forest gets more popular with increasing age of the trees (Koch & Jensen 1988). This is not the case with coniferous forest, as age has no effect on its popularity. Mixed deciduous forest is almost as preferred as the old, even-aged beech forest, one of the most beloved forests of the Danes. Otherwise, forest stands with mixed ages generally are liked better than even-aged stands, because stands with mixed ages have many layers. In win tertime, young stands of spruce are just as much liked as young beech stands. It is essential to notice that mixed coniferous forest with different ages, many old trees and a lot of deciduous trees - i.e. the forest type often preferred in other Nordic countries was not included in the study by Koch and Jensen (1988). Most Norwegians did not want foreign tree species in the forest, when an swering a verbal question (Haakenstad 1972). In Sweden, forest stands of Pi nus contorta were perceived to be somewhat brighter and more unnatural than other middle-aged coniferous stands in the field (Kardell & Wallsten 1989). Otherwise, the stands did not appear different in pleasantness or in suitability for outdoor life. Twigs are irritating and disturbing in all kinds of forests, according to a number of studies (Haakenstad 1972, Lind et al. 1974, Hultman 1983, Koch & Jensen 1988, Savolainen & Kellomäki 1981). The more twigs on clearcuttings, the more negative they are perceived to be. Clearcuttings are generally one of the most negative elements in the forest (Haakenstad 1972, Lind et al. 1974, Kardell 1990 b, see also Aasetre 1992). Recently stump-pulled clearcuttings are perceived as very negative (Kardell 1989). Smaller clearcuttings may rath- 283 Forest aesthetics er easily be accepted (Haakenstad 1972, Hultman 1983, Kardell 1990, Pukkala et al. 1988), while large clearcuttings are perceived as very negative by the great majority (see also Lind et al. 1974). Seed trees make the impression of clearcuttings less negative (Haakenstad 1972, Hultman 1983). The visual ef fect of seed trees remains also ten years after the cutting is done, as regenera tion by seed trees is considered more natural (Kardell 1989). The great amount of fallen trees make virgin forest unsuitable for outdoor recreation (Hultman 1983, Savolainen & Kellomäki 1981). Danes prefer beech forests without dead logs (Koch & Jensen 1988). Standing, winding old pines are perceived as positive elements in forests by Norwegians (Lind et al. 1974). Environmental protectionists and biologically educated people are pos itive to dead and fallen trees, while other people want such elements to be re moved (Kardell 1990, see also Savolainen & Kellomäki 1981). However, these conditions do not prevent the mere consciousness of the existence and conservation of a virgin forest from meaning a lot to the individual. Rare visits can also lead to exceptional and valuable experiences (Frank S. Jensen, pers. com. 1993). 10.4 Combinations of forest stands Physical characteristics of importance to visual variation seem to be tree spe cies and ages and to what extent they are mixed, as well as the density and structure of the stands (Axelsson Lindgren 1990, see also Haakenstad 1972, Aasetre 1992, Savolainen & Kellomäki 1981). The study by Koch & Jensen (1988) indicates that Danes prefer forest areas with both deciduous and conif erous stands, especially if the majority of the area is covered by deciduous trees. Few Norwegians prefer pure deciduous forests (Haakenstad 1972, see also Aasetre 1992). Just as in the Danish study, a great majority of visitors to Oslomarka do wish, however, to see birch, rowan and other deciduous trees as components of the forest landscape (Lind et al. 1974). In Finland, Mikola (1982) states that broadleaves provide lots of lightness in a coniferous forest landscape, and Prunus and Sorbus add more colour. So far, perception of forest interiors of single stands has been discussed the most. As Hultman (1983) suggests, variation between forest stands may well be just as important to the recreation experience. According to Kellomäki (1973), mixed forests are liked the most, as the richness in colours and shapes relaxes and gives new inspiration. Variability of forest stands may give more aesthetic and recreational experiences, as the attraction depends on the se quence of stands (Pukkala et al. 1988), and on the manner in which they are arranged. Diversity of forest landscapes is appreciated, as for example changes be tween mixed forests and monocultures, variation in age, height and density, and variation in the degree of cultivation of forests (Loven 1973, Kellomäki 284 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 1975, Mikola 1982). High diversity in forest stands may, however, be per ceived as monotonous when spread over large forest areas (Kellomäki 1973, Koch & Jensen 1988). Less appreciated forest types, such as clearcuttings and young tree cultivations, may contribute in a positive way to the variation if they are present in small amounts (Kellomäki 1975). Small clearcuttings may, in a positive way, open the closed canopy and the views (Pukkala et al. 1988, Kellomäki 1978). Diverse structure of age classes may thus be positive, as every age class may contribute with its kind of recreational value. Proportion and location of tree species are also important to perceived differences be tween forest stands. A study on what people perceive as similarities and differences between forest stands (Axelsson Lindgren 1990) resulted in five similarity groups: - Young deciduous stands. - Forest with mixed density and mixes of species and age. - Old, parklike deciduous forest. - Coniferous forest with high stems. - Young, very dense coniferous stands (Figure 10.1). It is probable that the similarity groups represent extremes of visual forest types, so that spectras of visual forest types may be identified between simi larity groups. The study showed extraordinary correspondence between expert and layman evaluations. This may indicate that visual variation is a quite fun damental aspect of landscape experience, where few different opinions may be found. At the same time, there are reasons to believe that you may find many individual differences in the perception of visual nuances. For those who plan and design recreation forests, it is important to be able to evaluate the effects of combinations or sequences of forest environments. Field studies of strolls along forest trails show that an increased number of vis ual forest types along a trail increases the desire to practice different open-air activities (Axelsson Lindgren 1990, 1988 a). Evaluations of the length of the trails and the time required to walk them were more accurate as the number of visual forest types increased. In a study on both sides of Öresund, a strait dividing Sweden from Den mark, Swedish and Danish students from agricultural universities evaluated environments around Swedish and Danish forest paths (Axelsson Lindgren 1988 a). On each side, one trail passed through few, and one through many, vis ual forest stands. Just as Koch & Jensen (1988) found, the Danes were very positive to all four of the forest trails described below. In this study, however, the Danes liked the uniform, uneven-aged mixed coniferous forest trail the best. They also found this trail to be the most special one. The trail through uniform beech forest was perceived as the most usual trail by the Danes, and this was also the trail least liked by them. The two varied trails were evaluated in between the uniform trails. 285 Forest aesthetics Figure 10.1 Similarities and differences between forest stands. The five photos each repre sent a similarity group of distinct visual forest types, according to a perception study (Axels son Lindgren 1990). The Swedes evaluated the pleasantness and originality of the four trails in completely the opposite way. Most appreciated by the Swedes was the trail through uniform beech forest, which they also considered most special. The two varied forest trails were evaluated as more pleasant than the uniform mixed coniferous forest trail by the Swedes, although earlier research (Haak enstad 1972, Lind et ai. 1974, Hultman 1983) indicates that this should be the trail most appreciated. The uniform mixed coniferous trail was also the most usual one, according to the Swedes. As this Swedish-Danish trail study indicates, the covariation between var iation and preferences is probably not linear. An all too marked visual varia tion between forest stands may even have negative effects. The study also gives examples of how dimensions of experience such as pleasantness, varia tion, originality and unity can covariate with each other. 286 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 10.5 Design and management of visual variation By identifying forest visual opportunity spectra it may be possible to create multiple-use alternatives for forests, where visual aspects as well as, for example, interests of environmental protection and forestry are taken into account. Each specific visual forest type gives specific possibilities and limits for forestry as well as for conservation aspects. Opportunities are thereby given to plan with patterns of possibility-combinations for the different aspects concerned (Axelsson Lindgren 1990). A study of the possibilities of working practically with a forest visual op portunity spectrum was carried out in the forest of Järavallen (Axelsson Lind gren 1990). The experience of every visual forest type was described verbally and registered using Kuller's method for semantic environmental description (1972). The method consists of eight dimensions of experience: pleasantness, complexity, unity, openness, social status, potency, affection and originality. This semantic instrument has been tested all over the world, and the dimen sions are proved to be stable and usable in all kinds of cultures. It is based on people's experiences of built-up environments but was successfully used in forest stand interiors (Axelsson Lindgren 1990). Some adjustment to the method for semantic environmental description may, however, be needed to captivate the specific experiences fostered by vegetation, such as forests, which may activate other dimensions of experience than built-up environ ments. Together, the dimensions of experience in the semantic instruments capti vate the atmosphere in each visual forest type. The vegetation structure in each visual forest type was described by an inventory form, where aspects of presumed importance for identification of visual forest types were registered. Verbal scenarios of the spontaneous development of the vegetation in the 28 visual forest types were created. Further, suggestions for management of each of the visual forest types were made in order to maintain the existing visual character described by Kuller's method. It may be possible to use similar techniques to develop the shaping of visual forest stands towards specific fu ture aesthetic goals. In all, the forest area in the study was 225 hectares. Another example of research for management of the visual qualities of forest is conducted in the "Furulunds fure" forest (17 hectares). From discus sions of principles of design and architecture of forests and from the structur al composition of the forest, management recommendations were made. The maintenance plan proposed restoration measures as well as the initiation and resumption of continuous maintenance measures. Six different main charac teristics were presented, from well-defined patches of natural woodland which are left untouched, to cultivated "pillared halls" of pine and beech. In addition, rich-in-species and multilayered forest stands and the opening of more glades and meadows were proposed. An important suggestion was the 287 Forest aesthetics planting of attractive woodland flowers to enhance the experience of spring and early summer (Gustavsson & Fransson 1991) {Figure 10.2). In a smaller urban forest (around 2 hectares), Falck and Rydberg (1990) promoted twelve different forest types by specific management. The aim was to study the possibilities of steering the composition of forest stands towards goals other than pure forestry. Forest stands used were, for example, the rowan forest, the uneven-aged spruce forest and a glade with border zone. The study by Falck and Rydberg (1990) actualizes the question of mini mum sizes for visual forest types. In mixed forests, researchers on forest struc ture found a minimum size of forest stands to be around 0.25 hectares. For dense, young forest and shrubs, one might identify stands of half that size, i.e. around 30 x 30 m. More open forest stands, looking like pillared halls, should probably have a minimum size of at least 100 x 100 m (Gustavsson & Fransson 1991). It is plausible that a visual forest type ought to cover areas quite a bit larger than these minimum sizes, so that the visitor has time to experience the character of the stand before entering a new visual forest type. Figure 10.2 An example of a profile from Furulunds fure, where the structural composition of the forest is analyzed (Gustavsson & Fransson 1991). 288 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 10.3 Winter landscape in eastern Iceland with Larix, Pinus contorta, Picea glauca and indigenous Betula. Photo: Sigurdur Blöndal. 10.6 Forest and the landscape Aesthetic management of forest as a landscape element has been debated above all in connection with large clearcuttings and afforestation of agricul tural land. The national landscape of Koli in Finland represents an image of Finnish national identity which is important to preserve (described in chapter 11 by Minna Komulainen). In Iceland, foresters test tree species from suitable climates all over the world for the future afforestation (Blöndal 1991). In this work, the positive effects of variated forests are emphazised (Figure 10.3). Aesthetic argumentation along the entire range in between these two extreme examples may be found in all of the Nordic countries. In open landscapes, the problems often concern the creation of new forest stands in concurrence with the environment. Choices of species are important, as also the connection of the forest to existing or created groves, hedges, shel ter belts, and so on. The shapes of border zones are especially important for the experience of forests in open landscapes. The length of border zones in the landscape has been used as a way to measure the degree of variation in land scapes (Skärbäck 1980). In Denmark, forest landscape aesthetics is one of five aspects, apart from wood production, which have to be taken into account in the multiple use of forests as prescribed by the law (Koch & Kristiansen 1991). This is especially important in publicly owned forests. In the Danish project "Forest and People" (skov og folk), preferences for forests as parts of broad, 289 Forest aesthetics open landscapes were studied, as well as preferences for forest interiors (Koch & Jensen 1988). In connection with the on-going afforestation in Denmark, that could re sult in a forest area twice as large as the present total forest area in the country, Borup (1991) actualizes the aesthetic aspects of border zones. She furthers the handbook tradition from forest authorities in the USA and Great Britain in de veloping a practical method for aesthetic design of forest border zones. She mainly combines the Visual Resource Management System (VRMS) from the USA with a method which she calls "The Six Principles" from Great Britain. Other Danish reports (Koch & Canger 1987, Koch & Kristiansen 1991), give examples on how the VRMS criteria: line, texture, color and form, in combi nation with contrast, sequence, axis, convergence, co-dominance and enfram ement, may be used in aesthetic management of forests in the landscape. A source of inspiration for Danish reports is also the work of Dame Sylvia Crowe. She often let shifting in selfbred forests due to changes in soil, mois ture, and height of the site inspire the design (Crowe 1966, 1978). Gustavsson (1988) gives recommendations on afforestation of cultural land, inspired by the VRMS, in the course compendium "Forest on agricultural land". He also mentions the importance of distinctive elements, of developing the complexity of the landscape, of preserving the feeling of openness, and of sticking to older cultural patterns, as well as developing completely new ones. In this course compendium, a more thorough analysis on afforestation and landscape complexity based on existing research is also given (Axelsson Lind gren 1988 b). 10.7 Discussion and concluding remarks In design of forest landscapes, perception of relations between forest areas with different visual qualities becomes very essential. Evaluations of prefer ences are in a static way attached to singular, uniform areas. Working with specific views, as in many handbooks, is also static. Several authors, such as Borup (1991), and Pukkala et al. (1988), ask for methods to handle the changes in forest over time. The future challenges for aesthetics of forest in the landscape are to describe differences and similarities between different forest stands as well as between larger forest areas and their surroundings, in a nuanced way. This should concern both description of the geographical dis persement of visual qualities in present landscapes, and different kinds of aes thetic changes in forests in the past and in the future. Work with aesthetics of forests as part of broader landscape in the Nordic countries has often been inspired by the kind of handbooks Borup (1991) has used. At best, these handbooks are based on professional experiences of aes thetic forest management. Very seldom are they based on research of people's perceptions and experiences of forests. Parts of the British method used by 290 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Borup are clearly based on pictures of graphics and geometrical patterns such as are used in perception psychology. Researchers in this field firmly state that they have never said anything about people's perceptions of environment. En vironmental psychology has grown up since around 1960, exactly because per ception psychology is incapable of describing people's perceptions of environments. Dimensions of experience used in environmental psychology (see Kiiller 1972) concern the moods people experience in specific environments. The VRMS to a greater extent concerns the qualities of forest volumes as part of a view, which shares similarities with the analysis of painted art. There are rea sons to believe that descriptions of perceived landscapes become considerably different from each other, depending on whether the landscape is described as a picture, i.e. as an object, or as a three-dimensional room, i.e. as a place to experience different moods in. The criteria texture, color and form in the VRMS -system are actually found to be dimensions of experience for objects (Sortel9B2). Other research has shown that the VRMS -criteria might rather be expressions of expert praxis, in work with landscape and forest views. The criteria are not so much expressions of lay people's experiences of landscape and forest (Grden 1979, Kopka & Ross 1984). How expert knowledge may be related to lay people's experiences of forests is discussed by Axelsson Lind gren (1990). A positive aspect of Borup's method (1991) is the formulation of aesthetic goals for the design of forest border zones. Thereby, the designer explicitly chooses to make aesthetic decisions from a spectrum of possibilities. Compar isons between existing and future environments are difficult to make, though, as Borup does not use the same aesthetic documentation of existing environ ment for describing aesthetic goals for the future. The method Borup uses for spatial analysis of existing forest landscape is developed for city environ ments. From the results obtained by Borup, it is doubtful whether it is relevant to use such a method in spatial analyses of forest landscapes. The semantic instrument used by Axelsson Lindgren (1990) for describing the experiences of forest interiors (Kiiller 1972) could probably be used for de scribing experiences of perceived forest landscape. The criteria: pleasantness, complexity, unity, openness, social status, potency, affection and originality seem to be similar to criteria used in other methods in several aspects. As this semantic instrument is developed for built-up environments, adjustments are most likely necessary before it can be conveniently used in forest environ ments. Today computer graphics in combination with geographical information systems and simulation techniques make it possible to create database-related visual scenarios of past and future landscapes. There is, however, a need for careful control of what pictures made by computer graphics are actually show ing in comparison with real field situations. 291 Forest aesthetics References Aasetre, J. 1992. Friluftsliv og skogbruk: en litteraturstudie. (Outdoor recreation and forestry: a literature study.) Norsk Institutt for Naturforskning, Utredning 34. 52 pp. (In Norwegian.) Antikainen, M. 1992 a. Metsämaiseman suunnittelu Kolin kansallispuistossa. Sum mary: Forest landscape planning in Koli National Park. Metsäntutkimuslai toksen tiedonantoja 456. 88 pp. Antikainen, M. 1992 b. Tammimetsien hoito. (Silviculture in oak forests.) Helsingin yliopiston metsäekologian laitoksen julkaisuja 1. 105 pp. (In Finnish.) Axelsson Lindgren, C. 1988 a. Danskars och svenskars upplevelse av variation i skog: en pilotstudie. (Danes' and Swedes' attitudes towards the variation in forest: a pilot study.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för landskapsplaner ing. Stencil 88:12. 37 pp. (In Swedish.) Axelsson Lindgren, C. 1988 b. Skog pä jordbruksmark: betydelsen av landskapets utseende för rekreationsutbytet. (Forest on agricultural land: the importance of the appearance of landscape for the supply of recreation.) In: Skog pä jord bruksmark: ekonomi och miljö. (Forest on agricultural land: economy and environment.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, fortbildningsenheten, Kurskom pendium. 9 pp. (In Swedish.) Axelsson Lindgren, C. 1990. Upplevda skillnader mellan skogsbeständ: rekreations och planeringsaspekter. Summary: Perceived differences between forest stands: recreation and planning aspects. Dissertation. Stad & Land 87. 443 pp. Blöndal, S. 1991. Socioeconomic importance of forests in Iceland. In: Alden, J., Mastrantonio, J.L. & Odum, S. (eds.). Forest development in cold climates. Plenum Press, New York. 13 pp. Borup, A. 1991. Landskabelige hensyn og fremtidige skovbryn. (Landscape aspects and future forest edges.) Den Kgl. Veterinaer- og Landbohojskole, Frederiks berg. 181 pp. (In Danish.) Crowe, S. 1966. Forestry in the Landscape. Forestry Commission Bulletin 18. HMSO, London. 32 pp. Crowe, S. 1978. The Landscape of Forests and Woods. Forestry Commission Booklet 44. HMSO. London. 47 pp. Falck, J. & Rydberg, D. 1990. Skogsskötselmodeller för tätorternas skogsklädda grönomräden. (Silvicultural models for the urban forest areas.) Statens rad för byggnadsforskning, Stockholm. 51 pp. (In Swedish.) Frivold, L.H. 1991. Synen pä blandskog genom tiderna. (The way to look at mixed forests through the ages.) Skog & Forskning 2: 6-10. (In Swedish.) Grden, B.G. 1979. Evaluation and recommendations concerning the visual resource inventory and evaluation systems used within the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management. Proceedings of Our National Landscape, 23-25 April 1979, Incline Village, Nevada. Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, p. 296-304. Gustavsson, R. 1988. Ny skog i odlinglandskapet: landskapsvärdsaspekter. (New for est in agricultural landscape: landscape management aspects.) In: Skog pä jordbruksmark: ekonomi och miljö. (Forest on agricultural land: economy and 292 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries environment.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, fortbildningsenheten, Kurskom pendium. 13 pp. (In Swedish.) Gustavsson, R. & Fransson, L. 1991. Furulunds fure: en skog i samhällets centrum. Summary: Furulunds fure: a forest in the centre of the town. Stad & Land 96. 131 pp. (In Swedish.) Haakenstad, H. 1972. Skogbehandling i et utfartsomräde. En opinionsundersokelse om Oslomarka. Summary: Forest management in an area of outdoor life. An investigation of public opinion about Oslomarka. Meldinger fra Norges Land brukshogskole 51(16): 1-69. Hjort, B. 1983. Var hör människan hemma? (Where does a person feel at home?) Dis sertation. Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Hultman, S.-G. 1983. Allmänhetens bedömning av skogsmiljöers lämplighet för friluftsliv. 2. En rikstäckande enkät. Summary: Public judgment of forest environments as recreation areas. 2. A national survey. Sveriges lantbruksuni versitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 28. Kardell, L. 1990. Skog och natur i Nordmaling: en attitydstudie 1986. (Forest and nature in Nordmaling: an attitude study 1986). Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för skoglig landskapsvärd, Rapport 45. 115 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. 1991. Talltorpsmon i Ätvidaberg. 1. Förändringar i upplevelsen av skogen mellan 1978 och 1989. Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för skoglig landskapsvärd, Rapport 46. 103 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. & Märd, H. 1989. Nägra gruppers attityder till stubbrytning 1976 och 1988. (A few groups' opinions about stump pulling in 1976 and 1988.) Sveri ges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 41.87 pp. (In Swedish.) Kardell, L. & Wallsten, R 1989. Nägra gruppers attityder till Pinus Contorta. (A few groups' opinions about Pinus Contorta.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdel ningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 40. 55 pp. (In Swedish.) Kellomäki, S. 1973. Recreational potential of a forest stand. Silva Fennica 12(3): 179-186. Kellomäki, S. 1975. Forest stand preferences of recreationists. Acta Forestalia Fen nica 146. 36 pp. Kellomäki, S. & Savolainen, R. 1984. The scenic value of forest landscape as assessed in the field and the laboratory. Landscape Planning 11(2): 97-107. Koch, N.E. & Canger, S. 1987. Skovopbygning til glasde for friluftslivet. (Forestry for joyful outdoor recreation.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 239 pp. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. & Jensen, F.S. 1988. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. IV del. Befol kningens onsker til skovenes og det äbne lands udformning. (Forest recreation in Denmark. Part IV: Preferences of the population as regards the develop ment of forests and the open land.) Det Forstlige Forsogsvassen i Danmark, vol. 41: 243-516. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. & Kristiansen, L. 1991. Flersidigt skovbrug: et idekatalog. (Multiple-use forestry: a handbook of ideas.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 39 pp. (In Danish.) Kopka, S. & Ross, M. 1984. A study of the reliability of the Bureau of Land Manage ment visual resource assessment scheme. Landscape Planning 11: 161-166. 293 Forest aesthetics Kiiller, R. 1972. A semantic model for describing perceived environments. Statens rad för byggnadsforskning, Document D 12. Stockholm. Lind, T„ Oraug, J., Skjervold Rosenfeld, I. & Östensen, E. 1974. Friluftsliv i Oslo marka: analyse av intervjuundersokelse om publikums bruk og krav til Oslo marka. (Outdoor recreation in Oslomarka: analysis of an interview study on the publics' use and expectations in Oslomarka.) Norsk Institutt for By-og Regionforskning, Arbeidsrapport 8. 96 pp. (In Norwegian.) Loven, L. 1973. Metsäympäristön viihtyisyystekijät. Summary: Amenity factors in forest environment. Helsingin yliopisto, metsänarvioimistieteen laitos, tiedo nantoja 3. 101 pp. Mikola, R 1973. Metsätalouden ympäristövaikutukset ja niiden merkitys metsien käytön suunnittelussa. (Environmental impacts of forestry and their signifi cance in the planning of forestry.) Helsingin yliopisto, metsänhoitotieteen lai toksen tiedonantoja 9. 51 pp. (In Finnish.) Mikola, R 1982. Suomen metsämaiseman kehitys. Summary: Development of the Finnish forest landscape. Terra 94(1): 56-63. Naturopplevelse i skog: referat fra et fagseminar. (Nature experiences in forest: a summary of a professional seminar.) 1992. Naturvernforbundet i Oslo og Akershus/Oslo og Omegn Turisforening. 80 pp. (In Norwegian.) Oraug, J. Östensen, E. Lind, T. & Skjervold Rosenfeld, I. 1974. Forventninger til rekreasjonsmiljoet i Oslomarka. Delrapport fra prosjektet: Friluftsliv i Oslo marka. (Expectations concerning the recreation milieu in Oslomarka. A report from the project: Outdoor recreation in Oslomarka.) Norsk Institutt for By- og Regionforskning, Arbeidsrapport 10. (In Norwegian.) Pukkala, T., Kellomäki, S. & Mustonen, E. 1988. Prediction of the amenity of a tree stand. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 3(4): 535-544. Reunala, A. & Virtanen, P. (eds.). 1987. Metsä suomalaisten elämässä. Summary: The forest as a Finnish cultural entity. Silva Fennica 21(4): 317-480. Savolainen, R. & Kellomäki, S. 1981. Metsän maisemallinen arvostus. Summary: Scenic value of forest landscape. Acta Forestalia Fennica 170. 74 pp. Skärbäck, E. 1980. Öresundsprojektet: landskapsanalys. (Oresund-project: landscape analysis.) Metodrapport, SNV pm 1268. 209 pp. (In Swedish.) Sorte, G. 1982. Visuellt urskiljbara egenskaper hos föremäl i den byggda miljön. (Visually distinguishable properties of objects in built-up environment.) Stat ens rad för byggnadsforskning, Rapport R 5. 141 pp. (In Swedish.) Sörlin, S. (ed.). 1983. Sinnenas skog: antologi. (The forest of the senses: an anthol ogy). Falköping. (In Swedish.) Personal communications Frank Sondergaard Jensen, researcher, The Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute. 294 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 295 Landscape management in forestry 11 Landscape management in forestry Minna Komulainen 1 Abstract In the past, landscape experience was related to the use of forest; to grazing, hunting and collecting wood. Nowadays, easthetic feelings aroused by forests are often connected with recreation. During the period 1880-1950, many for est managers emphasized the importance of conserving and creating beauty in forests. The modern efficient timber production oriented forestry devel oped after the Second World War and aesthetic considerations became less important. In the 1980 s, the rise in labour costs and changes in people's val ues have forced forestry to use more natural methods in fellings and other operations. Recent aesthetic trends pay more attention to ecological aspects. This has led to the development of the landscape ecology approach. The need for deeper knowledge of how to adapt forest operations to the aesthetic expec tations of people opened the way for landscape research in the Nordic coun tries in the 19705. Methods of forest management including cultural and aes thetic considerations have been studied, for example, in Ruissalo and in Koli National Park in Finland. The importance of aesthetics in forestry is still increasing because of tourism, urbanization and recreation. Keywords: landscape planning, cultural heritage, recreation, forest manage ment, landscape ecology, aesthetics. 1 Finnish Forest Research Institute Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland 296 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 11.1 Introduction Scandinavian landscape is typically small-scale forest landscape, where frag mented variation is created by lakes, fields and cutting (Figure 77.7). Forests surround also cultural landscapes. Forest management has a great impact on landscape, and the abrupt changes due to geometrical fellings have provoked strong criticism towards forest industry. For example, in autumn 1993 the stopping of clearcuttings was intensively demanded in Finland. Experience of the landscape is related to feelings, and thus it has become more important in forest management to adjust the needs of economic use of forests with the other forest values. This can be done with the help of landscape research, political strategies and silvicultural guidelines. Both the landscape experience and the Nordic forestry have changed in the course of time (Geelmuyden 1989 a). According to Miettinen (1993), consid eration of beauty in silviculture in Finland can be divided into three time peri ods: 1) Time before the First World War (before 1917): Forest aesthetics is developed following the central European models. Beauty is presented as part of idealistic education; the beauty of forest occurs when forests are managed. 2) Time from World Wars to 1965: Silviculture has developed to an independent sector. Vividness of forest views is created through ordinary timber management, and through management of park forests, sceneries, forest edges, and also through protecting forest for nature conservation purposes. 3) Time from 1965: Beauty is included in the new concept of multiple-use forestry. Landscape research is started. 11.2 Forest aesthetics Forest scenery is a part of the everyday living environment for the Scandina vians. Aesthetic experiences are felt when moving in the landscape and when viewing the landscape from a distance. Human beings have a need for beauty, security and variation in the landscape where they live in (Landskapsplaner ing... 1992). Forest landscape is perceived as elements (colours, smells, sounds), visual qualities (space, shapes) and qualities like unity, contrasts and scale (Sepänmaa 1987, Florelli 1982). While observing the environment, one also judges its aesthetic quality (Sepänmaa 1986). Aesthetic qualities have been studied by assessing the beauty of forests, re garding them as aesthetic objects (Sepänmaa 1986, Borup 1991). Forest aes- 297 Landscape management in forestry thetics describe the aesthetic experience as a result of different senses in a cultural context. According to Sepänmaa (1987), the Forstästhetik can also mean principles of aesthetic forest management. This concept was first pre sented by a German, Heinrich von Salisch (1885). Forest landscape contains many immaterial values, which vary according to cultural history, traditional land use and architectural style (Linkola 1983). Landscape values often reflect the cultural heritage of the country. The char acter of northern Scandinavian landscape is wild, natural and closed, due to the forests. It differs from the general landscape aesthetics in Germany and Eng land, where cultivated landscape is more common. The aesthetics of Nordic forests has been studied from landscape paint ings, literary descriptions and folklore (Schulin 1949, Sepänmaa 1978). Per ception studies measure the landscape values of modern people, but the roots of these values have been affected by cultural history. In a study of landscape heritage, forest aesthetics may explain why certain landscape types are re spected. Some landscape values remind us of archetypes in people's minds, and some come from works of art (Reunala 1987). 11.3 History of forest aesthetics In the 19th century, forest landscape was shaped by farmers and their tradi tional land use. The forest was a setting for their everyday life; it was used for grazing and shifting cultivation (Linkola 1983). Natural landscape was increasingly transformed into fields and meadows. In the past, landscape experience has been related to the use of forest landscape; to collecting wood, grazing and hunting. Nowadays, aesthetic feelings aroused by forests are often connected with recreation (Geelmuyden 1989 a). Until the 19th century, the word "landscape" (Swedish and Norwegian: landskap. Danish: landskab, Finnish: maisema) in Scandinavian languages meant land, area, county and soil, while it nowadays is often considered as the scenery of the surrounding areas (Keisteri 1990). At the end of the 19th century, untouched landscapes were seen from a ro mantic point of view (Borup 1991). This was related to the nations' birth and development. For example, in Norway and Finland, where economic develop ment went hand in hand with strong cultural identity, the natural resources, in cluding forests, were respected (Geelmuyden 1989 a). In Finland, the myth of landscape heritage generally applies to areas where natural elements of landscape are in powerful contrast (e.g. narrow eskers sur rounded by water) and where human activity has had only slight influence (Antikainen 1993). The earliest idea of nature and.landscape is found in the na tional epos, Kalevala. Its landscape aesthetics reflect the Finnish natural land scape, with forests and lakes, and also the use of forests for shifting cultivation (Sihvo 1984). 298 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Appreciation of natural landscapes arose in the 19th century. The expan sion of shifting cultivation moved the border of wilderness landscape to east ern Karelia and North Finland. Wild nature landscapes were appreciated in Finnish painting and literature. Scenes with lakes and forest-growing eskers from the Finnish lake district were represented as an ideal landscape. An ideal northern panoramic landscape was presented by the poet, J.L. Runeberg (Laitinen 1984). His descriptions of summer time scenery, small-scale varia tion of woods, lakes and fields became the archetypal landscape for Finns. Even nowadays, the most appreciated landscapes are areas where many land scape types meet. Later this symbolic and ethical landscape became more recognised and lo cated in a certain area (Klinge 1984). A Finnish writer, Zacharias Topelius, de scribed the character of different landscape areas in his poems and writing. He appreciated the mild, cultivated landscape, but also described wild forest land scape. Topelius named the three main elements of Finnish landscape: granite rocks, coniferous woods and lakes (Suutala 1986). Also the contrasts in topo graphy and the verdure of the shifting cultivated birch forests were important in his descriptions. Many landscapes presented in "Our Country", a famous book on Finnish geography, history and folklore, written by Topelius in 1887, are nowadays appreciated by Finns as landscape heritage. For example, the Punkaharju eskers and the Puijo hill offer famous views over blue lakes, seen from a high hilltop, and through crooked pines. Figure 11.1 A typical landscape from Finland. Photo: M. Komulainen 299 Landscape management in forestry Figure 11.2 Artists have often depicted the Finnish landscape by means of forest bordered views over a lake, seen from a high hilltop. The Koli landscape is a prime example of the em bodiment of these elements: a lake, a high place, crooked pines and verdure. Eero Järnefelt: "Koli". Gouache, 1927. (The Neste Collection, Espoo). At the end of the last century, national landscapes started to reflect people's image of their home country. Artists like Axel Gallen-Kallela, Jean Sibelius, and other "Karelianists" travelled to areas of Kalevala's birthplace. In their works, the panoramic landscapes, for example, from the Koli ridge or from es ker areas, represented the genuine Finland (Figure 11.2). Coniferous forests became symbols of wild, free and untouched nature, located in the hinterland or the border zones of culture. Groves and broadleaved trees symbolized the expansion of culture and civilization (Julkunen & Kuusamo 1987). A writer, Juhani Aho (1893) divides the landscape of Koli, one of the most famous na tional landscapes, into the wild, heathen eastern panoramic landscape and into the Christian, shifting cultivated landscapes dominated by deciduous trees. Landscape experiences are related to cultural context. Appreciation of landscape types has become more diversified. In the beginning of the 19th cen tury, only cultivated landscape was highly appreciated - virgin nature meant chaos and a threat. Romanticism brought appreciation of wilderness land scapes: cliffs, wind-broken trees and a stormy sea. But it was not until the be ginning of the 20th century, with the rise of nature conservation, that a monotonous natural landscape, like a plain bog, and the outer archipelago, also started to represent the beauty of virgin, barren nature (Sepänmaa 1978). 300 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 11.4 Foresters as managers of nature and landscape 1880-1950 As the first foresters learned methods of silviculture from Germany in the 19th century, they were also influenced by the cultural era of National Romanticism (Geelmuyden 1 989 a). In Scandinavia, discussion of forest aes thetics started in the late 19th century when the Danish Opperman (1897) wrote about a Romantic point of view to nature in the book "Skoven, Skov bruget og Det Skönne" ("Forest, Forestry and Beauty"). He was also inspired by von Salisch's book "Forstästhetik" (1885), where aesthetics was connected to silvicultural methods. Opperman points out that the beauty of forest is born from contrasts in environment, and the forest should give an impression of nature, not culture. These principles of forest aesthetics were carried further by the director of State Forests, Lorenzen (1918), who said that a forester's duty was to conserve and create beauty (Borup 1991). This same thought was also emphasized by the Finnish silviculturist, RW. Hannikainen, who wrote one hundred years ago of how foresters awoke negative feelings in the public when forest practices were carried out against naturalness and a sense of beauty. According to him, economic benefits and aesthetics exist side by side in forestry (Hannikainen 1893). With knowledge of natural sciences and wide experience of the state of forest nature during the intensive shifting cultivation period, foresters also were active in the newly founded organizations for nature conservation (Reu nala & Heikinheimo 1987). The idea of protecting the most sensitive and beau tiful areas was suggested by the first Norwegian foresters, P. Chr. Asbjörnsen and J.B. Barth, in 1864 (Geelmuyden 1989 a). In Finland, A.E. Nordenskiöld was the first to present the idea of establishing state-owned nature parks in 1881. Due to his famous suggestion, intensive discussion started in scientific societies. The Forest Research Association suggested the establishment of na tional and nature parks in Finland in 1906. In 1910, the National Forest Board started to protect valuable areas in state-owned forests (Cajander 1909). In eastern Finland, an intensive shifting cultivation culture developed in connection with the settlement of wilderness areas. By the end of the 19th cen tury, it was estimated that there were around 4 million hectares of shifting cul tivated areas, 20 % of which were without forest cover. The large burnt areas and signs of tar production in the Ostrobothnian region, in western Finland, provoked a fear of deforestation. Due to intensive shifting cultivation and se lection cuttings by measure, the first forest law was issued to protect forests in 1886. It was emphasized that the "forests should not be devastated". This also formed the main principle of later forest laws (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). In writings about the Finnish landscape, intensive human acts against the landscape were considered to cause destruction of aesthetic values (Inha 1924, Kalliola 1949, Sepänmaa 1978). A hundred years later, traditional land use 301 Landscape management in forestry and natural succession have made the shifting cultivated landscapes more har monious and appreciable, due to the fact that these areas are now covered by beautiful birch forests. The concepts of scenic beauty and ecological values were not especially emphasized in forestry at the beginning of this century, but they were included in silvicultural methods (Geelmuyden 1989 a), when farmers were taught how to regenerate forests spoilt by shifting cultivation, tar production and by selec tion cuttings by measure. In Finland, the theory of natural forestry was devel oped by Erkki K. Kalela in the 1940 s (Kalela 1949). According to Kalela, all management of forests should be done in such a way that man follows the nat ural processes. In Finland, ideas of landscape aesthetics in forestry were promoted by Torsten Rancken and Reino Kalliola. They emphasized naturalness in land scape management, using biological laws as guiding principles of beauty. This differs from von Salich's Forstästhetik, where aesthetic management varies according to the styles being applied (Kalliola 1949). Later, Kalliola's aesthet ic criteria were analyzed by Yrjö Sepänmaa (1978). In Sepanmaa's study, beauty of nature is classified with the help of the following concepts: harmony, contrast, richness, economy, simplicity, wildness, elaborateness, purposeful ness, changeableness, general opinion and knowledge. Torsten Rancken developed the basis for modern urban forestry. He wrote about how forests should be managed aesthetically when close to towns, vil lages and recreation areas. He described how to manage trees to develop a well-shaped crown, how to open views and how to enhance views with soli tary trees (Rancken 1956, 1964). In Norway, the concept of park forest was created between garden parks and national parks, in 1945, to classify aesthe tically important forests which were managed by applying silvicultural meth ods (Geelmuyden 1989 a). Reino Kalliola, a nature conservation inspector in Finland, described land scape management as aesthetic and social nature conservation, the goal of which is to conserve natural beauty, recreational opportunities and cultural values. Landscape management does not exclude the economic exploitation of an area, but tries to guide it so that human action affects the landscape harmo niously. According to Kalliola (1949), landscape management and nature con servation are separate issues because of their different goals. The goal of nature conservation is to protect the object from human impact, and it has an ethical basis for preserving flora and fauna (Kardell 1991). Landscape aesthetics and forestry were not in conflict until the Second World War. In this period, silviculture symbolized responsible management of natural resources and national values. Forestry and aesthetics had parallel management goals (Geelmuyden 1989 a, Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). 302 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 11.5 Functional aesthetics and efficient forest management 1950-1970 A modern, rational forestry developed after the Second World War. It empha sized economic interests and technical skills, whereas ecological and aes thetic considerations became less important. In the 1950 s and 19605, after an expansion of clearances even to the hin terlands, an efficient timber management began in Finland. Soon after the guidelines of natural silviculture had been presented by Erkki K. Kalela (1949), new technical skills made it possible to move from natural regenera tion to cultivation-based forestry. Clearcutting and planting spread from Lap land to southern Finland. Other new forestry practices were also introduced: site treatment, ploughing, fertilization, and chemical weed and sprout control. Also, technology became more artificial, as machines started to replace man and horse in felling and in other forest work (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). Clearcutting became a symbol of intensive forestry, alongside ploughing (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). Until the end of the 19605, the size of clear cutting in Lapland could be thousands of hectares. When problems occurred in the reforestation of large open areas, strip felling became a common method of regenerating old spruce forests. The resulting rectangular shapes did not adapt to the landscape. Geometrical clearcutting and strips were already used in the 1920 s and 1930 s on a small scale. When these methods were used in large areas, the fellings were criticized (Figure /1.3). The first guidelines for landscape and nature management were prepared for state owned forests by the National Board of Forestry, and also for private forest by the Central Forestry Board Tapio, in 1970. In Finland, thinning of forests is usually not a problem for landscape. Instead of tree selection, the nat ural character of landscape can be emphasized, for example, by increasing the amount of deciduous trees. The main problems occur in regeneration felling. Usually the natural methods for regeneration, shelterwood felling and seeding felling, have been favoured in aesthetically important places, because by using them the scenery will change gradually from dense forests to a stand formed by scattered trees. The impacts of regeneration have been softened by leaving solitary trees and tree groups in clearcutting areas (Savolainen 1990). In Norway, a new forest law focusing on timber production was drafted in 1965. It promoted the strategy of large-scale clearcuttings, building of forest roads and drainage. This type of forestry soon ended up in conflict with nature conservation and aesthetic values of forests. At that time, the landscape expe rience became a topic in the public debate on forest methods for the first time (Geelmuyden 1989 a). The building of forest roads and the large-scale fellings were considered disturbing by Norwegians, because these operations reduced the characteristics of the forest being a wilderness. Also the use of Norwegian spruce and Sitka spruce in afforestation was criticized, because these species 303 Landscape management in forestry Figure 11.3 Strip felling in northern Finland. Fellings were done in long strips on slopes. The geometrical shapes do not adapt to the character of the rolling landscape. Photo: E. Oksanen. are not natural in western Norway. Planting of these species has often been done in the middle of deciduous forest and on mountain slopes, where their ge ometrical shape and distinctive appearance can be seen from long distances. Conflicts between timber production and recreational values were sharp ened in Oslomarka, a forest area surrounding Oslo. This area became so essen tial, that the events there affected forestry and forest law drafting for the whole country. Oslomarka has been an important recreation area for a long time. Criticism started in the 19605, because of the increased building of forest roads. Later, clearcuttings were also criticized (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). Due to these conflicts over forest operations, a new nature protection law was passed. The law made it possible to establish special landscape areas to conserve aesthetic values. In Oslomarka, landscape values were given priority in determining management practices (Geelmuyden 1989 a). As a consequence of the conflicts in forestry, more information was spread and compromises in methods were made. In Norway, a new forest law on "for estry and forest protection" (Lov om skogbruk og skogvern) was passed in 1976. Under this law, the recreational and scenic importance of forests was stressed (Geelmuyden 1989 a). Also in Sweden, forestry was rationalized and forest owners concentrated in maximizing their economic benefits from forests in the 19605. The clearcut- 304 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries ting of large, over 100 hectare areas was started in Norrland. In ordinary silvi culture, there was a tendency to develop pure conifer forests, and mixed forests were reduced (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). Criticism of clearcutting started in 1967. This process led to a regulation which required that proposed fellings should be announced in advance (Kardell 1991, Falk 1991). A conflict was also created when large spruce sapling stands appeared in the cultural landscape of southern Sweden in the 19605. Local people and na ture conservationists started to complain about the dark spruce fields which re placed the flowering meadows and semi-open pasture forests which are highly appreciated by Swedes. In 1963, the Swedish National Board of Forestry es tablished a working group to conserve cultural landscapes (Kardell 1991). Fur thermore, during the 19705, the amount of beech forests was reduced, because spruce forests were easier to cultivate. Due to the fear that southern Sweden would become more and more coniferous, a new law to protect broadleaved forests (Ädellövskogslagen) was passed in 1986. This law prescribes that all oak, beech, lime and other broadleaved forests which are felled, should be re generated by broadleaved trees. Since 1974, landscape aesthetics has been one factor in the policy of the Swedish National Board of Forestry, for example, in its new guidelines for na ture- and landscape management (Kardell 1991, Natur och landskapsvärd... 1974). The guidelines emphasize the importance of active counselling with forest owners. Reduction of the size of clearcuttings, avoidance of geometri cally shaped edges in fellings and protection of beautiful solitary trees are rec ommended as well. Aesthetic considerations have also been featured in the new Swedish forest law (1993). It contains, for example, regulations for the size of clearcuttings and shapes of cutting areas. Kardell (1991) makes the criticism that there has not been much landscape management action in practice. In the period 1965-1980, the dominating type of landscape management was opening the forests along the shores and leav ing birches and alders evenly spaced. Often these operations were not aesthet ically successful. In Finland this kind of clearance work was also for a long time a common management method implemented for aesthetic purposes. In open landscapes, which are common in Denmark and Iceland, forests are appreciated for recreation but also for ecological reasons as wind and ero sion shelters. Afforestation has often resulted in geometrical planting follow ing private borders. New guidelines for adapting the afforestation better to the character of the rolling landscape are being worked out. In Iceland, the open areas, from which trees disappeared hundreds of years ago, are now being partly afforestated in order to prevent erosion and to improve the landscape (Blöndal 1987). These new forests have been highly appreciated by the Ice landers, but some criticism has been made of the cultivation of exotic species (e.g. Sitka spruce). Nowadays more birch is planted, as the amount of natural birch trees has decreased to 1 % of the original area (Arnalds 1987). 305 Landscape management in forestry 11.6 Ecological trends in landscape management in the 980s The rise in costs for manual labour and changes in values have forced forestry to use more natural methods in felling and other operations. Forest owners have become urbanized and for many of them timber production is not the most important management objective. A recent study in Finland has shown, that for more than 30 % of forest owners the main uses of their own forest are connected with recreation, i.e. to spending free time, or to affection for their home region (Ihalainen 1992). Many conflicts between forestry and nature conservation can be caused by an emotional response to changing landscape. Landscape is connected to feel ings, and abrupt changes in it cut personal connection to the past. The change in landscape either creates or destroys the feeling of security, depending on how we see or feel our environment. Recent aesthetic trends show a more ecological approach than before (Sepänmaa 1986, Geelmuyden 1989 a, Bramsnaes 1991). Functional and visual aesthetics have been reflected by the rise of landscape ecology (e.g. Forman & Gordon 1986). Sepänmaa (1986 & 1987) talks about ecological aesthetics, where the beauty of nature is not only beauty of forms of visual appearance, but also beauty of natural processes. He says that forest aesthetics should be based on a nature- and culture-ecological approach, where the appropriate ness of nature is the criterion for beauty. In Norway, the guidelines of landscape and nature values in forests high light the importance of landscape in forestry because of increasing recreation (Landskapvern... 1978). In 1986, a guidebook "Multiple-use forestry" ("Fler sidig skogbruk") was published. In this book, landscape was viewed both on a broad scale and at one stand level. Fellings and forest roads should follow the terrain's natural contours in order to keep broad landscape as natural as possi ble. In tree selection, deciduous trees should be favoured, and special attention should be paid to forest edges, for the sake of natural and scenic diversity (Geelmuyden 1989 a). In 1989, a new official strategy paper also called "Multiple-use forestry" (Flersidig skogbruk 1989) suggests that multiple use should be one condition of getting state support for forestry planning. Private forest organizations should use it as a starting point when making forest plans. Various elements of multi-purpose forestry are mapped and registered at forest stand level. These elements include edges, peatland forests, shrub layer, multi-layer forests, old broadleaves, elks' feeding places, nesting trees for birds, etc. In the report, it is mentioned that consideration and protection of different elements in forests re sult in diversity, variation, and with time, stable forest views without signifi cant economic losses. 306 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries In the "Flersidig skogbruk" -report, cooperation with local authorities and forest owners has been suggested when planning afforestation. Attention should be paid to the selection of tree species when planting trees in old, cul tural landscapes. In western Norway, broadleaved trees should be favoured in stead of exotic spruce plantations. The main problems with forestry and landscape are often connected to the shapes of clearances on summits or slopes, because they can be seen from long distances. Not much attention has been paid to the shaping of fellings on a broad scale, although it can be considered one of the most important landscape management practices. Kardell (1991) asks how kilometers long eskers in Skäne or river valleys in Norrland can be managed, when land is owned by many land owners. In Finland, fellings often follow private borders, which has been suggested as the reason for geometrically shaped clearances. In Norway, special orders are given to locate plantations and fellings according to the nat ural lines of the landscape (Flersidig skogbruk 1989). Cooperation across pri vate borders is recommended to prevent plantations and fellings from appearing too geometrical (Figure 1 1.4). In Denmark, the Forest Policy Committee established by the government in 1987 stressed that multiple use of forests should be supported and enhanced, with special consideration to immaterial values, such as aesthetics and recrea tion. Later, in the 1989 Forestry Act, landscape aesthetics is mentioned to be one of the five aspects to be taken into account in forestry in addition to timber production. According to the law, forests should be managed by considering landscape aesthetics, environmental conservation, recreation, and natural and cultural values. The law prescribes the promotion of conservation of broad leaved edges, diversification of landscape types and afforestation of broad leaved forests and edges (Koch & Kristiansen 1991). Figure 11.4 Principles of afforestation to adapt the operations accross private borders to the lines of landscape (Flersidig skogbruk 1989). 307 Landscape management in forestry In Sweden, the government has appointed the National Board of Forestry, the Agricultural University and the State's nature conservation organization (Naturvärdsverket) to work out a strategy for landscape planning for Swedish forestry. The working group points out that landscape considerations should be included in all forest operations (Landskapsplanering... 1992). They divide the various elements of landscape planning into three main categories: 1) the elements to be regarded in a geographic area, 2) the qualities of landscape which should be emphasized and developed, and 3) the development of strat egies for managing the forest. In the report of the working group, landscape aesthetics has been put into a wide ecological and cultural context; for example, historical changes and hy drology should also be considered in landscape planning (Figure 77.5). Vari ous reforms to improve landscape planning in forestry are also suggested including financial support by the state, and more research and practical mod els. Furthermore, landscape considerations should be included in new forest legislation. Ecological approaches to silviculture are also presented in a project called "Ständortsanpassat skogsbruk", which can be translated "forestry following natural site variation" (Lundmark 1988), and in a campaign called "Rikare skog" (Richer forest) (Rikare skog 1990), which shows new trends for the 19905. Furthermore, a new education program, "Det nya landskapet" (New Landscape) starts in 1994 (Gustavsson & Ingelög 1994). Recently, a new program for the protection of landscape heritage was started in Finland (Arvokkaat maisema-alueet 1992, Maisemanhoito 1992). In this program, regional types of landscapes have been classified and financial support has been suggested for the management of the most important land scape areas. These conservation plans mainly focus on cultural landscapes, but Figure 11.5 Landscape planning includes considerations of landscape ecology, aesthetics, landscape history and hydrology. Cultural patterns have also great importance for ecological and aesthetic layers of landscape (Landskapsplanering... 1992). 308 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries areas of forest scenery are also included. The importance of adapting forest op erations harmoniously to the edges of cultural landscape is featured. Another program for the protection of nationally significant landscapes was presented in the autumn of 1993. In Finland, forest organizations have responded to increasing criticism by creating programs such as "Green change" (Kalland & Pätilä 1993) and "Plus forest". New strategies and guidelines for considering ecological and aesthetic values of forests have been prepared by the forest industry and the state sup ported forestry administration organizations. The manager of state forests, the former National Board of Forestry, changed its name to the Forest and Park Service, which also reflects its growing importance as the manager of national parks and recreation areas. Because of criticism over forestry operations in state forests, the Finnish Forest and Park Service has prepared an education program and a guidebook about environmental forestry. The book contains practical management methods regarding nature protection, landscape and recreation (Metsätalouden ympäristöopas 1993) The organization for the promotion of private forestry, Forest Central Tap io, is renewing its silvicultural guidelines in order to increase the diversity of species and landscapes, and to protect water resources in forest operations. In addition, mixed forests are recommended instead of developing pure conifer ous forests. In site treatment, light methods are preferred instead of heavy ploughing. In these new multiple-use strategies, forestry organizations are revising their ethical responsibility in the light of ecological and landscape values. Be cause of critical arguments about the impacts of forestry operations on land scape and nature, and also because of the threat campaigns in the paper buying European countries, the interests of forest industry and environmental activists are beginning to meet. Reasons for the agreement can also be found among the economic expectations towards cooperation in the European Union. For exam ple, landscapes are essential assets for tourism, which could generate income for local communities (Geelmuyden 1989 a). 11.7 Research on forest landscape planning Due to the need for deeper knowledge on adapting forest operations to land scape, landscape research started in the 1970 s in the Nordic countries. Forest landscape planning and management have been studied for different goals and by different methods. In northern Scandinavia, where timber production and wilderness areas dominate, preserving ecological aspects in forest opera tions is given more consideration (Mikola 1973, Antikainen 1993). In south ern Scandinavia, efforts have focused on creating rich environments for rec reation (Axelson Lindgren 1990, Gustavsson & Fransson 1991) and on affor estation of agricultural lands (Borup 1991). 309 Landscape management in forestry Different landscape planning methods have been developed to analyze the visual factors of landscape, and the potential impacts of forest operations on landscape. Often the terminology and methods applied in the Nordic countries to forest landscape planning have been developed by the US Forest Service (Forest Landscape... 1972, National Forest... 1973, National Forest... 1974) and Forestry Commission in Britain (Crowe 1966, 1978, Forest Landscape... 1989, Lucas 1991). According to the Visual Management System (VMS), the character and variation of landscape is formed by four dominating elements: form, line, tex ture and colour. They are organized by contrast, sequence, axis, convergence, codominance and enframement (Forest Landscape... 1972). Danish reports (Koch et al. 1987, 1991) give examples of how these criteria can be used in forest management. However, in VMS methods, the forest view is seen through its present visual picture from a certain viewpoint; ecological devel opment and complexity of landscape are not considered. In Britain, site factors are used to inspire design. According to Crowe, the visual character of forest is affected by the shapes of the topography, variations in scale and vegetation types and patterns, texture and colours. Aesthetic qualities of forest landscape can be analyzed by different visual factors: shape, scale, visual force, diversi ty, unity, sensitivity and "spirit of place" (Crowe 1978, Forest Landscape... 1989, Lucas 1991, Bell 1993). Landscape planning methods in the Nordic countries underscore more the functional unity of forest landscape, and changes due to ecological and cultu ral factors, compared with the methods developed in the USA and in Great Britain (Table 77.7). Different ecological and visual layers of landscape have been applied in historical landscape scenarios (e.g. Brusewitz & Emmelin 1985) and in a Danish analysis called "Seks slags landskabsanalyse" (Stahls chmidt 1983). In Finland, landscape is also seen as a product of geomorpho logical, ecological and cultural development (Rautamäki 1990, see also Holt- Jensen 1988). Computer graphics in combination with GIS and simulation techniques have made possible the visualization of scenarios of future forest landscapes (Pukkala 1988). There have been few studies on landscape management to fulfil the needs of practical forestry. This has often resulted in guidelines for aesthetic forest management being developed first in practical forestry, by following one's prefences, or guidelines being borrowed from northern America. In the 19905, the interest in research on landscape ecology seems to be increasing in the Nordic countries (e.g. Gustavsson 1986, 1993, Sarlöv-Herlin 1993, Antikai nen 1993, Borup 1991, Baath et al. 1993). The structure of broadleaved forest landscape has been studied by Roland Gustavsson (1986). He has classified different forest and edge types and fol lowed their structural development and visual appearance after different forms of management. In his study of Furulunds fure, a pine forest in southern Swe den, variation is created in a visually unified area by different management 310 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 11.1 Fields of forest landscape research in the Nordic countries (Geelmuyden 1989b, Antikainen 1993). strategies changing the character of parts of the forest, for example, from a pil lar-hall pine forest to dense mixed forest (Gustavsson & Fransson 1991). Per Stahlschmidt (1988) also presents in his article, "Forest seen as Architecture", different structural types of recreation forests and edges. Different types of plantations can be created by planting various tree species in different struc tures, for example, in points, strips or mosaics. By managing the canopy layers differently, variation in forest views can be developed. A new approach to combining landscape aesthetics and landscape ecology in forestry is presented in the case area of Tranemäla in southern Sweden (Baath et ai. 1993, Gustavsson 1993). Landscape patterns were studied both on a broad and detailed scale. In visual analysis of Tranemäla, different cultur al and aesthetic values were mapped, such as open spaces, landscape damage, edge zones, contrasting tree groups and historical roads. Experiments were also made to increase natural and cultural elements in the frames of economi cally efficent but close-to-nature silviculture. Corridors, borders, buffer zones and key areas were protected and also created by leaving some areas in their natural state. The changes in landscape were studied by pollen analysis and the development of meadows and the surrounding edges was also predicted. In Denmark, connected with the on-going afforestation that aims at the doubling of the total forest area of the country, Borup (1991) actualizes the aesthetic aspects of border zones. She has developed a method for the aesthetic Area of Forest Environmental Landscape Forestry research aesthetics psychology architecture planning Goal Aesthetic land- How milieu Information for Uniting measured scape experience affects human milieu planning forest data to beings, landscape value valuations Study method Analysis of paint- Preferences from Analysis of physi- Mathematical ings, literature, photographs, cal environment models and com- historical changes video or on field and its aesthetic puter programs valuation Result Theoretical back- Measured know- Practical planning Numeric data from ground of land- ledge on valua- methods landscape scape valuations tions Problems No concrete infor- Static landscape Dependent on val- Restricted con- mation for practice picture, problems uations of expert cept of landscape of measuring Recent Sepänmaa 1978 Koch & Jensen Rautamäki 1990, Pukkala 1988, studies in the 1988, Kellomäki Gustavson & GIS-systems Nordic & Savolainen Fransson 1991, countries 1981 Borup 1991 Antikainen 1993 311 Landscape management in forestry design of forest border zones, with the help of the Visual Management System (National Forest... 1973 & 1974) and "The Six Principals" from Great Britain (see Forest Landscape... 1989). Aesthetic goals for the design of border zones are formulated, and some examples are illustrated in the following paragraphs. In Finland, a method for forest landscape planning has been developed through an analysis of landscape structure and aesthetic qualities (Antikainen 1993). Aesthetic views were related to forest factors and location in landscape in order to create alternative management models. According to the theory of landscape structure, the present appearance of forests is formed by the ecolog ical structure of landscape (Rautamäki 1990). Visual factors like scale, harmo ny, shapes of space and diversity are born from the visual presence of physical factors of nature and culture . Landscape structure analysis, visual analysis, and the history of land use were studied in case areas in the south-western coast (Ruissalo) (Figure 11.6) and the Karelian ridge area (Koli National Park). Ecological layers of land scape, for example, location of soil types, exposition, water and microclimate, were studied. A visual analysis of views, shapes of topography, landmarks and dominating elements was conducted in order to enhance the character and qualities of landscape and to avoid deterioration. The history of human land use was studied in order to understand the present view of the landscape, and to predict future development. In these analyses, the forest area was divided into landscape types according to their location in landscape structure. When the visual aspects of the forest were connected to their location in the land scape, models for aesthetic management were developed. In a forested ridge area, as in Koli, different forest types are: summit forests, slope forests, border zones and forests in valleys. For each type alternative management directions were given (Table 11.2). According to these analyses, silvicultural management models were rec ommended, depending on the location of the stand in the landscape structure. Forests on summits, slopes and edges ought to have their own typical tree spe cies and density. Also the regional type of landscape could be emphasized by silviculture. For example, in northern Karelia the summits of moraine ridges should be closed and covered by Norway spruce forest. In southern Finland, in Ruissalo, rocky hills and eskers are typically cov ered with half-open Scots pine forest. By thinning the interior space of a for est, the stand can be shaped to suit the topography. In Ruissalo, the summit forests are, by their character, often light and spacious pine forests, due to poor soil quality. The topographical shapes and big stones may be featured in a can opy landscape, and management could in many cases aim at making views more open. On more fertile soils vegetation is richer, and thus forms a domi nant visual factor. It brings vividness with its colours, variation in the structure of canopies, and changes in light and shadow. Thus, a forest in hollows can be kept more dense and mixed forests can be maintained (Antikainen 1993). 312 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 313 Landscape management in forestry Table 11.2 Classification of forest area into landscape types in Koli National Park (Antikainen 1993). In the study of Koli National Park, descriptions of Finnish landscape her itage were also studied in order to find criteria for aesthetic forest manage ment. National landscapes can give criteria of cultural and natural beauty for present landscape management, for example, to emphasize the contrasts of natural elements, to conserve diversity and to adapt human operations to land scape character (Antikainen 1993). 11.8 Future aesthetic trends in multi-value forestry The importance of aesthetics in forestry has increased because of tourism, urbanization and recreation. During the present era of internationalization, it has become more important to preserve the identity and local character of landscape (Algreen-Ussing 1992). The increasing amount of threatened spe cies also forces forestry to consider non-material values more than before. According to the Swedish government report (Landskapsplanering... 1992), landscape planning is an important tool for protecting the forest's biological diversity and cultural landscape. New trends in forestry seem to be emphasizing more the whole landscape instead of separate stands (Landskapsplanering... 1992). The trends in forestry seem to lead to a more dynamic landscape, where nature protection is comple mented by active and creative management of natural and cultural heritage. Landscape type Location Goal of forest view Aesthetic problems Landscape management Summit forest - on summits of hills, ridges, eskers - closed in broad landscape - skyline - harmonious tex- ture - broken skyline by clearcutting or seeding felling - saved closed by horizontal fell- ings, narrow clearcutting or dense shelter- wood fellings Forest on slope - on slopes - naturalness - geometrical and vertical fellings - shape and scale of felling - emphazising topography by different tree species Edges - between open space and forest - density - monotonous edge - clearcutting - removing all undervegetation -to enrich edge by different tree species Valley forest - in valley or flat land - richness of fore- ground land- scape - unity of small woods - deforestation of fields - on flat land invi- sible, behind edges - to enrich fore- ground 314 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 11.3 New trends in forest land scape planning according to the work ing group of landscape planning in Swedish forestry (Landskapsplanering ... 1992) Instead of managing large areas with one method, for example, clearing a clearcut completely, there is a tendency to increase small-scale variation of stands, and the amount of details in large stands. More attention is also paid to ecological, historical and aesthetic factors of land scape ( Table 11.3). Forest laws prescribe "the considera tion of landscape in forest operations", but often practical methods for landscape management are not given. There is a need for practical models in landscape planning and management, with illustra tions to visualize the impact of each prac tical action on the landscape. More re search is needed to analyze the regional characters of landscape and to develop suitable management models. Landscape planning has often been considered to be based on intuition, the idea being that aesthetic values can not be studied. The reason for this maybe a lack of suitable concepts for describing land scape (Bell 1993). As a result of this, only the feelings experienced when see ing fellings can be expressed, but deeper planning or justifications are not dis cussed by foresters. For better design and a landscape ecological approach, suitable concepts and criteria for landscape management have to be devel oped for use in the management of commercial forests. These concepts and criteria have to be produced for the Nordic landscapes, and can not be bor rowed straight from international research, because the landscape ecological patterns and cultural way of reacting emotionally to landscape varies a lot in different Nordic countries and regionally. Several regional classifications of landscape and nature types have been prepared in projects supported by the Nordic Council of Ministers (Representativa naturtyper... 1983, Terräng former 1984, Vegetationstyper 1984). These classifications can be used to analyze the character of a region, and for developing strategies to adapt fell ings and plantations to the local landscape. New computer programs for pre dicting visibility and impacts of operations should also be developed to facil itate the visualization of landscape design. Criticism of modern forestry is often caused by radical changes in land scape. There are no adequate methods to estimate what would be an acceptable change. It has been easier to describe the change by methods of biodiversity research. How can timber production be harmoniously adapted to the shapes Until today Tomorrow Conserving Dynamic, devel- oping new Systematical forestry Multi-value for- estry Large operation units Small operation stands, details in large stands Flora, fauna Aesthetics, cul- tural values Planning in sec- tors Cooperation between plans Specialists Synergists Separate stand Landscape per- spective One interest Totality 315 Landscape management in forestry and scale of the landscape? What kind, what amount and what speed of change is acceptable in a forest area or cultural landscape as a result of forest opera tions and afforestation of fields? The fear of increasing costs is one reason for the negative attitudes to land scape management in forestry. The impact of landscape management on in come and costs of silviculture should be studied. As there is a demand for harmonious landscape in society, the state should support landscape manage ment through lower forest taxes or environmental subsidies if a forest owner is required to reduce his fellings for the sake of the landscape. References Aho, J. 1893. Kauniita näköaloja Suomessa. 1. Kolin vaara. (Beautiful landscapes in Finland. 1. The Koli Ridge.) In: Oinonen-Eden, E. (ed.). 1984. Kolin taiteili jakareliaanit. Unpublished Report. (In Finnish.) Algreen-Ussing, G. 1992. Bevaringsvaerdi: hvad er det. (Protection value: what is it.) Arkitekten 15. (In Danish.) Antikainen, M 1991. 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Veterinaer- og Landbohojskole, Frederiks berg. 181 pp. (In Danish.) Bramsnaes, A. 1991. Ecology in planning. The social and cultural choice. Proceed ings of the European lALE -seminar on Practical Landscape Ecology. Vol. IV. Roskilde University Centre. Brusewitz, G. & Emmelin, L. 1985. Det föränderliga landskapet: utveckling och framtidsbilder. (The changing landscape: development and future views.) LTs förlag, Stockholm. 127 pp. (In Swedish.) Cajander, A.K. 1909. Metsätieteellinen tutkimustoiminta ulkomailla ja ehdotus sen järjestämiseksi Suomessa. (Forestry research abroad and a proposal for the organization of it in Finland). Helsinki. 138 p. (In Finnish.) Crowe, S. 1978. The landscape of forests and woods. Forestry Commission Booklet 44. HMSO, London. Falk, B. 1991. Rätten att formulera skogsbrukets problem. (The right to define the problems in forestry.). Skog & Forskning 1: 6-8. (In Swedish.) Flersidig skogbruk: skogbrukets forhold til naturmiljo og friluftsliv. 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(In Swedish.) 317 Landscape management in forestry Gustavsson, R. & Fransson, L. 1991. Furulunds fure: en skog i samhällets centrum. Summary: Furulunds fure: a forest in the centre of the town.) Stad & Land 96. 131 pp. (In Swedish.) Gustavsson, R. & Ingelög, T. 1994. Det nya landskapet: kunskaper och ideer om naturvärd, skogsodling och planering i kulturbygd. (The new landscape: knowledge and ideas of nature management, afforestation, and planning in cultural areas.) Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 360 pp. (In Swedish.) Hannikainen, RW. 1893. Kauneuden aisti metsänhoidossa. (The sense of beauty in silviculture.) Suomen metsänhoitolehti 2. (In Finnish.) Holt-Jensen, A. 1988. Geography: history and concepts. 2. edition. Chapman, Lon don. 186 pp. Horelli, L. 1981. Ympäristöpsykologia. (Environmental psychology.) Weilin & Göös, Espoo. 250 pp. (In Finnish.) Ihalainen, R. 1992. Yksityismetsänomistuksen rakenne 1990. (The structure of pri vate forest ownership 1990.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 405. 41 pp. (In Finnish.) Inha, I.K. 1925. Suomen maisemia. (Landscapes in Finland.) 2. painos. WSOY, Por voo. 498 pp. (In Finnish.) Julkunen, E. & Kuusamo, A. 1987. Kansallisomaisuus. Metsän mielikuvat isänmaal lisissa lauluissa ja metsämainoksissa. Summary: Images of forests in patriotic songs and forest advertisements. In: Reunala, A. & Virtanen, R (eds.). Metsä suomalaisten elämässä. Summary: The forest as a Finnish cultural entity. Silva Fennica 21(4): 351-361. Kalela, E.K. 1949. Luonnonmukainen metsien käsittely. (Nature-like silvicuture.) Tapio, Helsinki. (In Finnish.) Kalland, F. & Pätilä, A. 1993. The green change. Finnish Forest Industries Fereration, Helsinki. 29 pp. Kalliola, R. 1949. Metsätalous ja luonnonsuojelu. (Forestry and nature conservation.) Suuri metsäkirja. Vol. 1. Metsänhoito. WSOY, Helsinki. (In Finnish.) Kardell, L. 1991. Skogsbruket och landskapsvärden. (Forestry and landscape man agement.) Skog & Forsking 3:13-20. (In Swedish.) Keisteri, T. 1990. The study of changes in cultural landscapes. Fennia 168(1): 31- 115. Klinge, M. 1984. Suomalainen maisema. (Finnish landscape.) In: Löytöretki maise maan, suomalaisuus kuvataiteessa 1700 -luvulta nykypäivään. (Excursion into landscape, Finnishness is paintings from the 18th century until today.) Tampere. (In Finnish.) Koch, N.E. & Canger, S. 1987. Skovopbygning til glaede for friluftslivet. (Forestry for joyful outdoor recreation.) Miljoministeriets projektundersogelser, Teknik errapport 8. 239 pp. (In Danish.) Koch N.E. & Kristiansen, L. 1991. Flersidigt Skovbrug: et idekatalog. (Multiple-use forestry: a handbook of ideas.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 39 pp. (In Danish.) 318 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Laitinen, K. 1984. Metsästä kaupunkiin: esseitä ja tukielmia kirjallisuudesta. (From forest to town: essays and studies from literature.) Otava, Helsinki. 333 pp. (In Finnish.) Landskapsplanering i svenskt skogbruk. (Landscape planning in Swedish forestry.) 1992. Rapport till Regeringen och den Skogspolitiska Kömmitte. (A report to the government and the forest policy committee.) Sveriges Lantbruksuniver sitet, Institutionen for Landskapsplanering, Stencil 92: 8. (In Swedish.) Landskapsvern og naturvern i skogen: veiledende retningslinjer i skogen. (Landscape and nature protection in forest: guidelines for forestry.) 1978. Norsk Skogbruk 2: (ln Norwegian.) Linkola, M. 1983. Suomalainen kulttuurimaisema. (Finnish cultural landscape.) In: Kinnunen, A. & Sepänmaa, Y. (eds.). Ympäristöestetiikka. 2. painos. (Envi ronmental aesthetics.) Gaudeamus, Helsinki, p. 118-149. (In Finnish.) Lorenzen, P. 1918. Fra Forstlig Diskussionsforening. (From forest discussion associ ation.) Dansk Skovforenings Tidsskrift 6. (In Danish.) Lucas, O. 1991. The design of forest landscapes. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 381 pp. Lundmark, J.-E. 1988. Skogsmarkens ekologi: ständortanpassat skogsbruk Vol 2. Tillämpning. (Ecology of forest soil: site adapted forestry. Vol 2. Application.) Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 320 pp. (In Swedish.) Maisemanhoito. Maisema-aluetyöryhmän mietintö I. Summary: Landscape manage ment; Report I of the working group on landscape areas. 1992. Ministry of the environment, Environmental Protection Department, Working group report 66/1992. 199 pp. (In Finnish.) Metsäluonnon hoito ja suojelu yksityismetsissä. (Management and protection of nature in private forests. 1986. Metsäkeskus Tapio, Helsinki. (In Finnish.) Metsätalouden ympäristöopas. (Environmental guidelines for forestry.) 1993. Met sähallitus, Vantaa. 112 pp. (In Finnish.) Miettinen, J. 1993. Luonnon kauneuden huomioon ottaminen metsänhoidossa. (Pay ing attention to the beauty of nature in silviculture.) Helsingin yliopiston met säekologian laitoksen julkaisuja 7. 158 pp. (In Finnish.) Mikola, P. 1973. Metsätalouden ympäristövaikutukset ja niiden merkitys metsien käytön suunnittelussa. (Environmental impacts of forestry and their signifi cance in the planning of forestry.) Helsingin yliopisto, Metsänhoitotieteen lai toksen tiedonantoja 9. 51 pp. (In Finnish.) National forest landscape management. Vol. 1. 1973. USDA Forest Service, Agric. Handbook 434, Washington D.C. National forest landscape management. Vol. 2. 1974. The Visual Management Sys tem. USDA Forest Service, Agric. Handbook 462, Washington D.C. Natur- och landskapsvärd. (Nature and landscape management.) 1974. Skogssty relssen, Jönköping. (In Swedish.) Oppermann, A. 1887. Skoven, Skovbruget og Det Skonne. (Forest, forestry and the beauty.) Tilskueren 14. Kobenhavn. (In Danish.) Pukkala, T. 1988. Methods to incorporate the amenity of landscape into forest man agement planning. Silva Fennica 22(2): 135-146. 319 Landscape management in forestry Rancken, T. 1956. Puistometsien hoito. (Management of park forests.) Met säkäsikirja, 1 osa. Rauma. (In Finnish.) Rancken, T. 1964. Träden i park och landskap. (Trees in parks and landscape.) Frenckellska tryckeri AB, Helsinki. (In Swedish.) Rautamäki, M. 1990. Maakunnallinen maisemaselvitys: Varsinais-Suomi. (Provin cial landscape investigation in South-West Finland.) Varsinais- Suomen seu tukaavaliitto, Ympäristöministeriö. 108 pp. (In Finnish.) Rautamäki Paunila, M. 1982. Maisemamaakunnat, valtakunnallinen viheralue järjestelmä. (Landscape provinces, national system for greenbelts.) Teknil linen korkeakoulu, arkkitehtiosasto, maisemalaboratorio, julkaisu 3. Ota paino, Espoo. 135 pp. (In Finnish.) Representativa naturtyper i Norden. (Representative types of nature in the Nordic countries.) 1983. Nordiska rädet, NU 1983:2. 139 pp. (In Swedish.) Reunala, A. & Heikinheimo, M. 1987. Taistelu metsistä: voimaperäinen metsätalous Suomessa ja muissa maissa. (The fight for the forests: intensive forestry in Finland and other countries.) Kirjayhtymä, Helsinki. 188 pp. (In Finnish.) Reunala, A. & Virtanen, P. (eds.). 1986. Metsä suomalaisten elämässä. Summary: The forest as a Finnish cultural entity. Silva Fennica 21(4): 3 1 7- 480. Rikare skog: 90 -talets kunskaper om naturvärd och ekologi. (Richer forest: the knowledge of nature protection and ecology in the 90s). 1990. Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. 133 pp. (In Swedish.) von Salisch, H. 1885. Forstästhetik. Julius Springer, Berlin. Sarlöv-Herlin, I. 1983. Woodland edges in the agricultural landscape. Studies of structural characteristics as a base for management, new construction and con servation. Paper presented in a meeting in Denmark 24.5.1993. Unpublished. Savolainen, R. 1990. Metsä maisemassa. (Forest in landscape.) Teollisuuden metsä viesti 2. (In Finnish.) Schulin, V.P. 1949. Skovdyrkningens forhold til det skovbesogende publikum. (The relationship of forest management and the people visiting forests.) Dansk Skovforenings Tidsskrift. (In Danish.) Sepänmaa, Y. 1978. Ympäristön esteettinen kuvaus, tulkinta ja arvotus: periaatteet ja analyysiesimerkki. (The aesthetic description, interpretation and valuation of environment: principles and an analysis example.) Helsingin yliopiston yleisen kirjallisuustieteen ja teatteritutkimuksen laitoksen moniste 5. (In Finn ish.) Sepänmaa, Y. 1983. Tarkoituksenmukaisuus kauneuden kriteerinä. (Appropriateness as a criterion for beauty.) In: Kinnunen, A. & Sepänmaa, Y. (eds.). Ympäristöestetiikka. (Environmental aesthetics.) 2. painos. Gaudeamus, Hel sinki. p. 199-232. (In Finnish.) Sepänmaa, Y. 1986. The Beauty of Environment: a general model for environmental aesthetics. Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, ser B 234. Sepänmaa, Y. 1987. Metsäestetiikka ja metsän estetiikka. Summary: Forstästhetik and forest aesthetics. In: Reunala, A. & Virtanen, P. (eds.). Metsä suoma laisten elämässä. Summary: The forest as a Finnish cultural entity. Silva Fen nica 21(4): 374-385. 320 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Sihvo, H. 1984. Suomalaista maisemaa sanamaalarien kuvaamana. (Finnish land scape described by verbal painters.) In: Löytöretki maisemaan, suomalaisuus kuvataiteessa 1700-luvulta nykypäivään. (Excursion into landscape, Finnish ness is paintings from the 18th century until today.) Tampere. (In Finnish.) Stahlschmidt, P. 1983. Seks slags landskabsanalyse. (Six types of landscape analy sis.) Den Kgl. Veterinaer- og Landbohojskole, Institut for have og landskap, (In Danish.) Stahlschmidt, P. 1988. Skoven set som arkitektur. (Forest seen as architecture.) Grönt miljö 5. (In Danish.) Suutala, M. 1986. Luontoja kansallinen itsekäsitys. (Nature and national identity.) In: Manninen, J. & Patoluoto, I. (eds.). Hyöty, sivistys, kansakunta. (Benefit, civilization, nation.) Pohjoinen, Oulu. (In Finnish.) Terrängformer i Norden. (Forms of terrain in the Nordic countries.) 1984. Nordisk ministerräd. Topelius, Z. 1887. Maamme -kirja (Our land -book.) WSOY, Porvoo. (In Finnish.) Vegetationstyper i Norden. (Vegetation types in the Nordic countries.) 1984. Nordisk ministerräd, Oslo. 539 pp. 321 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry 12 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry Katrine Hojring' Abstract It is important that the marks left on the landscape by history be considered on an equal footing with productional, biological and recreational interest in multiple-use forestry. Legal protection of historical remains is quite similar throughout the Nordic countries. Historical sites and monuments protected by heritage preservation laws may not be excavated, covered, altered, damaged or removed, and a protective zone is defined around them. Despite these laws, many historical monuments and sites are still damaged and even ruined. This is usually done by people exploiting the forests for production purposes. A special problem in relation to heritage preservation is the preservation of liv ing remains of past utilization forms. A historical view of nature necessitates a change in the understanding of what heritage preservation is. From mostly being concerned with monuments and buildings and other traces of settle ments, the concept has been enlarged to include traces of, for example, old field systems and pastures. The most ambitious level of heritage preservation is the wish to create whole, coherent, historical landscapes. Keywords: historical remains, forests, culture, legislation, administration, his torical landscapes. 1 Planetvej 5, DK-3100 Hornbaek, Denmark 322 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 12.1 Introduction The Nordic nature and landscape is not only a product of geological, meteor ological and biological processes, but also a product of cultural history. Hardly any part, however remote it may be, has through the centuries remained untouched by human activities. This is commonly known, but nev ertheless most people in today's urbanized society think of the areas outside human settlements as "nature", implying something wild, unspoilt and origi nal. The idea of nature as wild has its origin in the romantic period around 1800, when the ideal of nature shifted from what was "cultivated" to what was "wild/uncultivated". To the romanticist, nature was not a place where you "produced", but a place, where you "reproduced" - a divine creation, un touched by civilization, designed to restore the mind from work and worry - something to be looked upon with admiration, and not to be soiled by human civilization (Hansen 1987, Reunala 1989). Barrows and dolmens -"giants' graves" and "pagan altars" - were mysterious signs of mankind's savage and primitive past. The production landscape was submitted to rational human exploitation and as a consequence, was not covered by the romanticist idea of nature. Land scape was divided into a recreative, natural part, and a productive, denatural ized part. In the light of the romantic view of landscape, a conflict in forest manage ment becomes immediately visible. On the one hand, the forest produces im material goods, as sensuous experiences, necessary for mental reproduction. On the other hand, it produces material goods of great economic importance. It is this fundamental antagonism, caused by the romantic view of nature, which multiple-use forestry tries to overcome through a more holistic view, regarding all interests as integrated parts of a coherent landscape (Koch 1990, Koch & Kristiansen 1991). As a result, the multiple-use discussion has prima rily focused on recreative and biological interests, as opposed to wood produc tion. Traces of cultural activities have only to a very small degree been drawn seriously and constructively into discussions of multiple-use forestry. In most cases, they have acted as a sort of appendix, listed with other aspects of mul tiple-use forestry, to show the variety and multitude of this approach to forest management. Foresters have always been aware of cultural remains in forests, but only as small "historical sanctuaries" - a grave mound, a reindeer pitfall, a prehistoric stronghold - viewed as isolated objects of interest and preserva tion. Concurrently with the attempt to establish a holistic view of landscape and nature not only in forestry but in landscape management in general, it becomes relevant to consider the integration of historical interests in such a new nature concept. Cultural history offers the possibility of eliminating the conceptual 323 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry antagonism between a "production landscape" and a romantic "natural land scape". Our landscape, with both its "natural" and its "cultural" elements, is the result and evidence of a historical process. Therefore, cultural history is the process which connects the two elements, and explains their coexistence, mu tual connection and dependence. On this basis, it is important that the marks left on the landscape by history be considered on an equal footing with pro ductional, biological and recreative interests when weighing the interests in multiple-use forestry. 12.2 Land conquest and heritage preservation Today the general tendency in heritage preservation is directing attention towards the individual monument, instead of the monument as an element in an integrated cultural landscape. Heritage preservation has been treated as "protection of species" instead of "protection of structures and processes". Cultural remains are regarded as isolated retreats, where traces of past events can be studied. This view of cultural remains is in many ways the natural consequence of the circumstances under which heritage preservation came into being. The in terest in and awareness of the need to protect cultural remains from destruction grew in the first half of the last century. Big improvements were made in ag riculture, the landscape being exploited in a much more rational and efficient way than before. New areas formerly uncultivated were taken into cultivation, and historical monuments and sites, previously lying utterly undisturbed out in the wilderness, would suddenly appear to lie in the middle of cultivated fields. To modern, rational land use historical monuments were partly a sheer incon venience, partly a raw material source - both aspects causing their rapid dem olition. Heritage preservation rose from the growing awareness of the necessity to save the remaining traces of history before they were destroyed. The first an tiquarian laws protecting ancient monuments were formulated in most of the Nordic countries at the turn of the century. A far-seeing exception was Swe den, which passed a heritage preservation law already around 1600 (Lund 1988, Nielsen, I. 1987, Nielsen, V. 1987). As a direct consequence of the context in which the problem of heritage preservation arose, the first monuments to be taken under protection were the kinds that were most common in open agrarian landscape. These monuments were typically barrows, dolmens, passage graves, monoliths, prehistoric forti fications and other conspicuous remains of the past (Laursen 1988). Most of these types of monuments were common in southern Scandinavia, because this was where agricultural and urban development was most comprehensive. These were the regions with the closest contacts to European markets, and 324 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries therefore the best chances to profit from industrial development, and the need for agrarian products in the new metropolises. 12.3 The forest as a heritage preserver Outside the forests many monuments have been destroyed, not only because of land reclamation, but also because of the need for raw materials. Monu ments built of stone have been most severely endangered. Stones have been taken from dolmens to build churches, houses and bridges, from cairns and other stone structures to build fences and roads. Earthen monuments have, because of their contents of humus, been used for soil improvement, particu larly in areas with poor soils. Most of the monuments in the forests were protected from this, because they were too out of the way and the trees made transportation difficult. Also forestry, compared to agriculture, was a much more extensive sort of land use. The soil was hardly tilled, and all planting was done by hand. As a consequence, antiquarian concern for historical monuments in forests was limited. In Denmark, a systematic registration of historical sites and mon uments was begun in the second half of the last century. Principally it covered the whole country and all landscapes, but in praxis registrations in forests were not done as thoroughly as out in the open (Laursen 1988). This was partly of course for practical reasons. Cultural traces in forests are much more difficult to register, because trees and undergrowth restrict sight. But strategic reasons were just as important. Remains in forests were not considered to be as seri ously threatened as the ones in the agrarian landscape. This idea of historical monuments being very well protected in forests has been held until quite recently. Whereas almost all historical sites in the open have been registered in the Danish Land Registry, only a random selection of sites in forests have been registered. Growing mechanization in forestry has changed this in recent years, and the administration has found itself forced to register sites in forests as well as in the open to protect them from big modern forestry machines. 12.4 Forest management after the Second World War The increasing mechanization and rationalization of forest management since the Second World War has gradually eliminated the protective effect of the forest. Big and heavy machines are causing considerable traffic damage to historical monuments. New roads change the traditional layout of the forest landscape around the historical monuments and sites. In some cases, they even cross and damage them. Much more drastic forms of felling and clearing 325 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry Figure 12.1 A cairn ruined in forest work. Photo: Christian Meschke. and much more comprehensive soil treatment than before definitely raise the risk of damaging historical remains (Reunala 1989). With some of the machines used in modern wood production, only one case of thorough cultivation of an area is enough to do serious damage to a his torical monument (Figure 12.1). After two cases, only very big structures will still be recognizable. Traces of historical fields and field boundaries will not be distinguishable any more, neither will small barrows (Hojring 1991). The traditional, lenient forestry methods were the ones that ensured the preserva tion of these monuments. The requirement for productivity and yield has led to the planting of forest on marginal forest grounds, for example, through draining wet or humid areas (Reunala 1989). Draining and planting cause significant changes in the land scape. In relation to historical remains, this may be very unfortunate. Living traces of old cultivation forms will in most cases be destroyed, and historical monuments will loose their natural scenic context. In the case of a medieval castle, for instance, draining and planting of the surrounding swamps will ob literate a landscape element which is crucial to the understanding of the defen sive situation of the castle. In the case of historic settlements, draining and planting will make it difficult to understand what caused a settlement at that particular place, namely, the possibility of exploiting several different bi otopes at the same time. Another serious consequence of draining is that invaluable scientific source material such as organic remains of prehistoric settlements may be de stroyed because of the altered chemical conditions. Through the years some of the most valuable finds have been made in bogs, because of the special pre serving faculties of peat. 326 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Seen from a heritage preservation point of view, what has been happening in forests in the period since the Second World War is analogous to what hap pened in open agrarian landscape 100 years ago. 12.5 Protection of historical remains today Today a great variety of site types and monuments have been set under legal protection. Not only those traditionally known from the intensively cultivated areas, but also less spectacular remains and remains from the less densely inhabited parts of the Nordic countries are required to be protected. Legal protection of historical sites and monuments is quite similar throughout the Nordic countries. Historical sites and monuments protected by heritage preservation laws may not be excavated, covered, altered, damaged or removed. Only the definition of the types of monuments covered by the law differs somewhat from country to country (Denmark: Lov om naturbeskyt telse, Lov nr. 9 af 3 januar 1992; Finland: Lag om fornminnen, N:o 295, 17. juni 1963, § 1; Iceland: Olafson 1991, pers. com.; Norway: Lov av 9. juni 1978 nr. 50 om kulturminner, § 3; Sweden: Lag om kulturminnen m.m. SFS 1988:950, 2. kap. Fornminnen, § 6). In Norway, only historical remains predating 1537 AD and Sami sites more than 100 years old are included in the law. The Sami sites were included in the law in 1978 as an acknowledgement of the role heritage plays in the re production of modem Sami culture (Storm in Myklebust 1988). Sites younger than the above mentioned have to be considered individually, whether they qualify for protection (Lov av 9. juni 1978 nr. 50 om kulturminner, §§ 4 & 5). In Sweden, sites and monuments are protected if they have been defini tively abandoned from use, which means that Swedish law gives no precise age limit for protected sites and monuments (Lag om kulturminnen m.m. SFS 1988:950, 2. kap. Fornminnen, § 1). In Iceland, all cultural remains more than 100 years old are protected by the Heritage Preservation Law (Olafson 1991, pers. com.). Iceland was prob ably not populated until after 800 AD, and therefore lacks the traces of early human activities common in the other Nordic countries. Finnish and Danish laws mention no age limit, but in Denmark the limit has through administrative practice been defined as sites and monuments more than 100 years old. 12.6 Protection of the surroundings All the Nordic heritage preservation laws define a protective zone around sites and monuments, covered by the law (Finland: Lag om fornminnen, N:o 295, 17. juni 1963, §§ 4 and 5; Norway: Lov av 9. juni 1978 nr. 50 om kulturmin- 327 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry ner, § 6; Iceland: Ölafson 1991, pers. com.; Denmark: Lov om naturbeskyt telse, Lov nr. 9 af 3 januar 1992, §§l3 and 18; Sweden: Lag om kulturminnen m.m. SFS 1988:950, 2. kap. Fornminnen, § 2). The size of the zone differs from 2 m in Finland, over 5 m in Norway, and 20 m in Iceland, to 100 m in Denmark. The Danish 100 m zone only applies to monuments outside forests - protecting the visual experience of the site from being obscured by build ings, constructions and plantations. Inside existing forests the protective zone is 2 m. In Iceland, there is no special rule concerning monuments in forests, as there is relatively little forest and therefore very few possibilities of conflict ing interests arising. According to Swedish law, the protective zone around a historical monu ment is to be determined individually, depending on the single monument's need for protection. This is also the case in Finland and Norway, but in these two countries the monuments also have a fixed protective zone in force until an individual zone is determined. The possibility of establishing individual protective zones opens up opportunities for safeguarding the surroundings of a protected monument, for example, the fields around an abandoned, medieval settlement, or the coastline of the Stone Age sea, explaining the situation of a Stone Age settlement site (Fornlämningar och... 1988). The individual fixa tion of the protective zone only happens on request, and as Sweden has about 200,000 registered historical sites and Norway has somewhere between 100,000 and 200,000 registered historical sites, the administrative task of de termining individual protective zones for each monument is more or less un manageable (Mikkelsen in Myklebust 1988, Riksantikvarieämbetet, Forn värdsenheten 1991, pers. com.). In practice, the zones are in most cases deter mined, when foresters report felling plans for forest compartments or in con nection with applications to the municipalities for building permits or the like. 12.7 Unprotected remains A special problem in relationship to heritage preservation is the preservation of living remains of past cultivation forms, for example, old stands of trees which have been pollarded for fodder or fencing material, forest stands cre ated by livestock grazing, vegetational patterns created by shifting cultiva tion, and forest paths used for centuries when bringing cattle from one graz ing area to another (Figure 12.2). These cultural traces are not protected by heritage preservation laws. If they happen to be set under protection, it is mostly done on biological grounds, i.e. when a certain flora and fauna in a forest stand is found to be threatened, because the traditional kind of land management has been given up (Worsoe 1988). The preservation of these endangered species has in many cases been carried through as status quo preservation of their habitats, but as these habitats are a result of a certain his torical land management, they are not secured in the long run, because of the 328 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 12.2 Cattle on the way to summer pasture in Norway. Photo: Jens Nytoft Rasmussen gradual regeneration of the forest. Neither are, of course, the traces of histori cal cultivation forms. In the nature conservation acts of Norway, Denmark and Sweden, there exist implicit possibilities to create nature parks or reserves, not only on bio logical and geological grounds, but also on cultural grounds (Norway: Lov om naturvern, 19. juni. Nr. 63, 1970, §§ 5 and 11; Denmark: Lov om naturbesky ttelse, Lov nr. 9 af 3. januar 1992, § 33; Sweden: Naturvärdslagen, 1964:822, §§ 7, 18c, 19 and 20). The reasoning, though, has almost solely been based on natural-historical arguments (Emanuelsson & Johansson 1989). Also the area planning laws of the different countries open up certain pos sibilities of protecting cultural landscapes, as they can be implemented in de termining in which way a particular area may be utilized, and which conditions must be fulfilled (Norway: Plan- og bygningslov 14. juni. Nr. 77, 1985, § 25. 6.; Denmark: Lov om planlasgning, Lov nr. 388 af 6. juni 1991, §§ 1,6 and 15). 12.8 The organizational context of heritage preservation In Sweden and Finland, heritage protection respectively belongs to the Minis try of Culture and of Education, whereas in Norway and Denmark it belongs to the Ministry of Environment. This organizational relationship indicates the different views of what historical sites and monuments represent. From an 329 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry educational point of view, they are considered as historical sources and his torical symbols. From an environmental point of view, they are rather consid ered as landscape elements and signs of the historical development of the cul tural landscape. The environmental point of view is carried quite far in Denmark, where heritage preservation is part of the assignment of the National Forestry and Nature Agency (Skov- og Naturstyrelsen), and where the heritage preserva tion rules are formulated in the Nature Conservation Act (Naturbeskyttelses loven. Lov nr. 9 af 3. januar 1992). Heritage preservation and forestry were united into one organisation in 1987. The organisational joining of the two ad ministrative branches has in recent years led to a growing awareness of the conflicts between heritage preservation and timber production, and also to a growing effort to try to solve these problems. One of the first visible results is that the new Danish Forestry Act (Skovloven) cites the care of cultural-histor ical remains as an aspect which should be included in multiple-use forestry (Skovloven, Lov nr. 383 af 7. juni 1989, kap. 1). This does not only concern remains already protected by the Nature Conservation Act (Naturbeskyttelses loven), but also other traces of human activities, such as culturally and historically interesting forest stands, or traces of ancient fields (Figure 12.3). Also in Finland consideration for historical remains has lately been includ ed in the Provision on Forest Administration (Förordning om forststyrelsen), but in this case only as a reference to the current law on heritage preservation. Figure 12.3 Participants of an excursion on a former field in Denmark. Photo: Niels Hørlück JessenJessen. 330 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries The provision does not mention additional historical traces, which are not cov ered by the law (Förordning om forststyrelsen, Nr. 373. 22. februari 1991, § 5). 12.9 Wood production and heritage preservation In spite of the fact that heritage has been protected legally for more than 50 years in all the Nordic countries, many historical monuments and sites are still damaged and even ruined. According to antiquarian experience, damage to historical monuments and traces is rarely caused by forest guests visiting the forest for recreational purposes. Only if a monument is very popular, it may be subject to certain wear and tear. Damage to historical remains is mostly caused by people exploiting the forest for productional purposes, using heavy machinery on soft ground, plant ing and constructing new roads. In most cases the damage occurs because the forest workers and administrators are negligent of the existence of historical monuments in forests and of the care they require. In some cases damage is done purposely, because the land owner is not willing to accept the limitations the heritage preservation law puts on his right of property and his possibilities to obtain maximum yield. The extensive use of big machines in modern forest management often leads to the creation of uniform and uninteresting "forestscapes", which do not support the visual experience of historical sites and monuments. In many cas es, old culture forest disappears and is replaced by forest which is more suited for rational forest management, able to meet society's demands for wood and fibres. Seen from a heritage point of view, this is the dominant conflict in forest management today - the conflict between wood production interests and her itage protection interests. In practice, the conflict is a territorial battle, con cerning whether areas should be defined as historical remains and thus be withdrawn from forestry administration and from the possibility of economic exploitation. The solution to the conflict is probably not only of a practical na ture, but also ideological. It presupposes a general change in the conception of what historical traces in forests are. Today they are mainly seen as small, ran dom refuges in a landscape which is organized on the basis of a non-historical nature view and with completely different interests in mind. Historical remains are not seen as natural co-products of the process which also creates the eco nomic and the natural values of the forest. In line with this separation of historical interests from the other interests in multiple-use forestry, historical interests have not been subject to discussions about cost and benefit in the same way as have biological and recreational in terests. We do not speak of cultural resource economics as we speak of natural resource economics. To antiquarians, historical remains are generally consid ered a common boon, whose unquestionability is established by the law. To 331 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry foresters, historical monuments are, on the other hand, an expensive distur bance in the employment of customary working processes and planning pro cedures. Preliminary research indicates that only in very few and exceptional cases will considerations for historical remains be very costly for the forest owner. In most cases, it is a matter of integrating considerations in the short-term or ganizing of working processes, and long-term planning of forest layout and production (Hojring 1991, 1992). 12.10 Altering perspectives A practical attempt to implement a different perspective on the role of cul tural heritage in the landscape has in recent years been made by Swedish anti quarians and foresters. They have been working on a general strategy for how Swedish forests should be managed, if the traces of traditional forms of land use are to be saved from demolition. The author of the group's recommenda tions stresses that protection of cultural remains is not only a question of pro tecting the monument or the site itself. The ways in which the water, the for est and the vegetation have been exploited are important parts of cultural her itage, as are the constructions and physical remains themselves. Therefore entireties and correlations between structures should be preserved as well as the monuments (Gärdö 1993). The group suggests a regional division of Swedish forests, based primarily on traditions for cultural exploitation, sec ondly on geological and climate conditions. Each region has its own guide lines for the ideal kind of forest management, seen from a heritage preserva tion point of view (Figure 12.4). The Swedish strategy for forest management creates a framework for the weighing of historical interests in multiple-use forestry. It considers the land scape in general as a result of a historical process, where all elements have sig nificance for the understanding of the entirety. The Swedish strategy is one of the first practical results of the growing wish amongst Nordic landscape man agers to implement a wider and more process-oriented heritage concept (Kris tiansen 1990). The Swedish considerations on the protection of cultural landscapes in for ests may bode a change of approach to the administration of heritage preser vation. But one must be aware that the adoption of a historical nature view necessitates a change in the understanding of what heritage preservation is. If the landscape as a whole is a historical product, it will not be possible to con tinue the traditional way of preserving heritage by withdrawing areas with his torical remains from productional exploitation. 332 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 12.4 The suggested regional division of Swedish forests in accordance with cultural historical landscape interests. Source: Gårdö & Jönsson (1991). 333 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry 12.11 A widening of the concept The exclusiveness of the traditional heritage concept is an expanding problem for antiquarian administration because of general widening of awareness of what types of historical remains should be preserved. Still more and bigger areas are subject to heritage interests. From mostly being concerned with monuments and buildings and other traces of settlements, the concept has been enlarged to include traces of old field systems and pastures. Modern antiquarians feel the growing pressure of the necessity to weigh up historical interests. Awareness was first awakened towards the most ancient traces of old fields, those from the iron age. Later, awareness was raised towards the pro tection of high-backed fields from the middle ages, which were very often found in forests. In recent years, even traces of land-use forms from more re cent centuries have been the object of registration and preservation interests. Also the forest itself as a cultural landscape has become an object of inter est. There is a growing wish to know how forest resources have been used through the centuries as pastures, hunting grounds and a raw material source for building materials and tar- and charcoal-burning - and how the first indus trial exploitation of the forests for timber and firewood for the mining indus tries was organized. In Sweden and Finland, because of the big areas covered with forest, the exploitation of the forest as a resource is of particular historical interest and cultural-historical significance. 12.12 Biological interests Generally historical interests are not contrary to other "soft" interests in mul tiple-use forestry. In most cases, historical monuments are an asset in the rec reational exploitation of the forest, because they add to the span of possible experiences and to the variation and mysteriousness of the landscape. Biolog ically interesting species of plants and animals are often dependent on partic ular types of monuments and traditional forms of land use for their survival. In specific cases there may be conflicts between recreational and biological interests and heritage preservation, for example, when visitors' behaviour causes the demolition of a monument, or when attention to certain biological interests necessitates the modification or removal of historical remains. Seen in the light of a historical nature view, the conflict between biological and his torical interests is a question of whether the remains from this or that histori cal period should have priority. The floral and faunistic interests in heritage preservation are most conspic uous in relation to living traces of old cultivation methods, for example, par ticular forms of forest management, abandoned pastures and old stands of pollarded trees. Different ways of exploiting the natural environment have all 334 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries created special biotopes, characterized by certain plants and certain animals, especially different kinds of insects. Particular types of monuments may also be habitat for special plants and animals. For instance, in Denmark and southern Sweden, where accumula tions of stone are rather rare, monuments built of stones, such as fences or cairns, attract species which are fond of this sort of environment (Thorsen 1984). Draining is another field with merging interests between the biological and the cultural-historical aspects of multiple-use forestry. Both ecologist and cultural historians consider the conservation of bogs, moors and lakes impor tant. Their preservation helps ensure biological diversity, which is important both from a scientific point of view and out of common curiosity. And they may represent a part of the landscape which is essential to the understanding of past activities. They might even hide structures and objects, preserved only because of the humid environment. 12.13 Livestock husbandry The possibility of letting livestock graze and pigs find mast in the forest is very attractive from a historical point of view. This utilization of the forest has been an important factor in the creation of the forest landscape in all the Nordic countries. Over large areas, on the outskirts of the farming settlements, pasture cre ated light, park-like forests with picturesque trees. Pollarding trees for winter fodder and for fencing material left open, garden-like forest stands around the villages. Herding livestock gave rise to a dense network of forest paths leading from pasture to pasture and from village to village (Reunala 1989, Gärdö 1993, Worsoe 1988). Because of legal regulations, it is no longer possible to maintain this kind of forestry in all the Nordic countries. In Denmark, economic utilization of the forests led to serious deterioration several hundred years ago. Around 1800, a series of initiatives were taken to protect the little remaining forest (less than 2 % of the land) from complete ex termination. Forest areas were defined, and it was forbidden to let domestic animals forage in these areas (61. Forordning om Skovenes Udskiftning, Vedligeholdelse og Fredning i Kongeriget Danmark, 1805). This rule has now, almost 200 years later, caused some difficulty in preserving some very char acteristic and biologically and historically valuable forest stands. The stands are in some cases set under protection, because of these particular values, but only in quite exceptional cases will you be permitted to carry on the kind of livestock husbandry that has created them and that would maintain them. If you want to preserve these landscapes, you will in most cases have to imitate the patterns artificially, which is in most cases much more laborious and ex pensive. 335 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry In Finland, livestock grazing in forests is still permitted, but general changes in agricultural production - not only in Finland, but in almost all the western countries - have decreased the demand for forest grazing areas. As the old forest pastures have become superfluous, Finnish forestry has turned them into modern production forests (Reunala 1989). 12.14 Recreational exploitation of forest The social value of historical traces is not only their value as scientific source material for cultural historians. To see and understand historical sites and monuments is of great importance to average people as well. It gives the pos sibility of experiencing cultural and landscape continuity, and it adds to the variation of the landscape. Also historical traces arouse curiosity and give a sense of mystery. This means that care of historical remains does not imply only the physical protection of monuments and sites from destruction. It also implies the ques tion of how to give people access to this common good - how to make people see, experience and even understand the monuments. Presenting cultural her itage involves considerations of what sort of image the site should present, how its surroundings should look, how easily it should be picked out in the for est, and last, but not least, what sort of labour one is willing and able to invest in the effort. Heritage presentation can be extremely costly and labour de manding, but can also be practised effectively on a less ambitious level (Gärdö 1993, Hojring 1992). Most sites and monuments have to be made visible. Only few visitors will search for and recognize historical traces if they are covered by scrub and brushwood. A further improvement of the experience would be the creation of a suitable context around the historical monument. For example in the case of a medieval fortification, it greatly furthers the understanding of the structure if it is possible to see its natural surroundings, or to see all the barrows in a group, indicating a prehistoric cemetery, or to see a bridge crossing a stream as well as the sunken roads leading down the slopes towards it. In some cases the se lection of indigenous trees may be valuable for the presentation of historical traces, because they supplement the experience of the historical landscape. The choice of indigenous trees may also support economic interests in forest ry, because these trees are generally better adapted to the natural environment, and therefore less exposed to the risk of crop failure and vermin. The wish amongst foresters to create a varied forest picture and to take into consideration the scenic context of the forest gives way to the integration of considerations for the traditional cultural landscape in forest planning. For ex ample, it would be possible to let forest compartment boundaries comply with old field boundaries in the forest. In this way old fences could be saved from damage or from being demolished, and the traditional pattern of boundaries 336 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries between properties or between areas, utilized in various ways, would be pre served (Hojring 1991). Such considerations in forest planning would serve the preservation of historical remains and would reduce conflicts between histor ical and wood production interests. As it is, the aesthetic considerations in forestry are mainly based on a tra ditional nature ideal, aiming at creating organic lines in the landscape (Forest landscape... 1989). The organic lines may hide or even obliterate historically caused boundary lines, and so remove historical information from the land scape. Seen from this point of view there may be agreement between the inter ests of traditional forestry and heritage preservation, because the traditional, geometrical border lines are practical in a rational organization of working processes. 12.15 "Nature" parks and ecomuseums The most ambitious level of heritage preservation is the wish to create whole, coherent historical landscapes. There seems to be a growing interest these years in creating nature parks, which include cultural aspects in the land scape, and where the aim is to preserve a genuine picture of past forms of agricultural and industrial exploitation, and the derived flora and fauna (Emanuelsson & Johansson 1989). An offshoot of these ideas of landscape preservation is the "ecomuseum" concept, which has been gaining a foothold in the Nordic countries these past few years (Ormio 1988). The basic intention with ecomuseums is to preserve economic units of historical significance in their entirety as living elements in the landscape - as a sort of open air museums, which not only include build ings, but also the landscape that makes up the economic basis of a settlement (Figure 12.5). This kind of preservation of cultural landscapes is very valuable seen both from a scientific point of view and from a heritage presentation point of view. It offers the opportunity to study biological species, nutrient economy and hu man subsistence in a certain ecosystem, possibly suggesting environmentally sounder alternatives for modern agriculture and forestry. It also gives the pub lic an opportunity to visualize a way of life in a certain historical period (Emanuelsson & Johansson 1989, Emanuelsson 1990). The establishment of ecomuseums is still within the framework of a tradi tional nature concept, dividing the landscape into different sectors. The ecomuseum concept does not offer any immediate and operational methods for integrating historical interests in multiple-use forestry. Also the mainte nance of an ecomuseum is extremely resource demanding and will probably only be possible in very few cases, particularly on state-owned land. 337 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry Figure 12.5 Settlement surrounded by swidden areas, open pastures, forest pastures and broadleaved stands utilized for winter fodder at the beginning of the 1 9th century. Photo: W. W. WilkmaWilkman. (Museiverket, Helsinki). 12.16 Conclusions Until now cultural history has only been given very slight attention in the weighing of interests in multiple-use forestry. Discussions have been concen trated around biological, recreational and productional interests. The reason for this is probably to be found in the traditional nature ideal, which distin guishes wild nature and the production landscape. Historical remains are con sidered random, strange phenomena, which have survived from our cultural childhood. Multiple-use forestry wishes to abolish the sectorization of the landscape that follows from the traditional view of nature, and wishes instead to create landscapes where all interests are equal parts of the entirety. The solution of this task is not only a practical problem, but also a mental one. It presupposes a change in our view of nature, which includes productional, recreative, bio logical and historical exploitation. If the landscape as a whole is seen as a product of the historical process, history will fulfil the purpose of explaining the merging in time and space of elements which are in a traditional nature view considered mutually exclusive. The conflicts between historical interest and other aspects of multiple-use forestry have not been subject to systematic analyses, and therefore we lack 338 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries systematized knowledge of the character and dimensions of the conflicts, the costs of paying regard to historical interests in forest management, and the possibilities of practical solutions to the conflicts. Today's preservation of his torical remains in forests is solely based on the practical everyday experience of foresters and antiquarians engaged in their protection. Heritage administration rests on the same sectorized view of the landscape as other landscape administration. Historical remains are seen as small areas, reserved for the purpose of attending to historical interests. A change in our view of nature, based on a historical understanding of the landscape, therefore necessitates a change in our attitude towards the management of historical in terests in the landscape, and a change in administrative practice. At the mo ment, most antiquarians do not consider themselves to be landscape managers, but a sort of custodians, guarding cultural heritage against attacks from the outside. This understanding of heritage preservation is a natural consequence of the history of heritage preservation. If this role is to change, it is necessary to offer the antiquarian side of administration opportunities to be involved in landscape management right from the planning phases. References Bramsna.'s, A. 1987. Landskabsarkitektens natursyn. (The landscape architect's way to see nature.) In: Bang, S. et al. (eds.). Naturen stopper ikke ved bygrasnsen: om natursyn og naturforvaltning. (Nature does not end by the town border: the way to see nature and nature management.) Miljoministeriet, M iljoskrift 4. (In Danish.) Damgaard, H. 1988. Kulturhistorie i Fredningsplanlasgningen: metode og resultater 1978-1986. Summary: Cultural history in protection legislation: methods and results 1978-1986. In: Fortidsminder og kulturhistorie. Miljoministeriet/ Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Antikvariske Studier 9. Damgaard, H. 1988. Landskabsbevaring i historisk perspektiv. Summary: Landscape protection in historical perspective. In: Fortidsminder og kulturhistorie. Miljoministeriet/Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Antikvariske Studier 9. Emanuelsson, U. 1990. Växtnäringsämnenas roll vid övergängen frän traditionellt till modernt jord- och skogsbruk. Summary: The role of fertilizers in the transi tion from traditional to modern agriculture and forestry. In: Bang, C.H. (ed.). Kultur og miljo: en baredygtig udvikling. (Culture and environment: sustaina ble development.) Fortidsminderädet og Miljoministeriet/Skov- og Natursty relsen. Emanuelsson, U. & Johansson, C.E. (eds.). 1989. Rekommendationer för kulturland skapet. (Recommendations for cultural landscape.) Nordiska ministerrädet. (In Swedish.) Forest Landscape Design. Guidelines. 1989. Forestry Commission, Edinburgh. 32 pp. Fornlämningar och skogsbruk. (Historical remains and forestry.) 1988. Riksantikvar ieämbetet. (In Swedish.) 339 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry Förordning om forststyrelsen. (Statutes concerning the Forest Service.) Nr. 373. 22. februari 1991. (In Swedish.) Fredning av fornlämningar. (Protection of historical remains.) Museiverket, Helsing fors. Brochure. (In Swedish.) Gärdö, M.B. & Jönsson, B. 1991. Bevarande av kulturmiljoer vid skogsbruk. (Preser vation of cultural milieus and forestry.) Riksantikvarieämbetet. Unpublished. (In Swedish.) Grue, U.D. 1990. Flerbruk: norskjordbruk er mer enn mat. (Multiple use: Norwegian agriculture is more than food.) Statens fagtjeneste for landbruket. (In Norwe gian.) Grue, U.D. 1990. Gardsmiljo: tilpassing av gammelt og nytt. (Farm milieu: adapta tion of the old and new.) Statens fagtjeneste for landbruket. (In Norwegian.) Grue, U.D. 1990. Skjertsel av kulturlandskap: praktisk vejleder. (Management of cul tural landscape: practical quidelines.) Statens fagtjeneste for landbruket. (In Norwegian.) Hansen, J.S. 1987. Natursyn og naturforstäelse. (Nature perception and understand ing nature.) In: Bramsnaes, A. et al. (ed.). Sadan ligger landet. Dansk Byplan laboratorium. (In Danish.) Hojring, K. 1991. Kulturhistoriske interesser og skovdrift. (Cultural and historical interests and forestry.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen/Miljoministeriet. Unpub lished. (In Danish.) Hojring, K. 1992. Skovdrift og fortidsminder. (Forestry and historical remains.) Skov-info 7. (In Danish.) Kristiansen, K. 1990. Fra romantik over antikvarisme til historisk natursyn. (From romanticism via antiquarianism to historical nature perception.) In: Landet og Loven. Skov-og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. p. 57-65. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. 1990. Flersidigt skovbrug i gär, i dag og i morgen. (Multiple-use forestry yesterday, today and tomorrow.) In: Landet og Loven. Skov- og Natursty relsen, Horsholm. p. 109-113. (In Danish.) Koch, N.E. & Kristiansen, L. 1991. Flersidigt skovbrug: et idekatalog. (Multiple-use forestry: a handbook of ideas.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 39 pp. (In Danish.) Kulturminnesvärdsprogram för Skäne. Del: Malmöhus Län. (A program for the pres ervation of cultural heritage in Skäne in Malmöhus Län.) 1984. Länsstyrelsen i Malmöhus län. (In Swedish.) Lag om fornminnen. (Law concerning historical remains.) N:o 295. 17. juni. 1963. Finland. (In Swedish.) Lag om kulturminnen m.m. (Law concerning historial remains.) 1988:950. (In Swed ish.) Laursen, J. 1988. Skove og fortidsminder. Summary: Forest and historical remains. In: Fortidsminder og kulturhistorie. Miljoministeriet/Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Antikvariske Studier 9. Linkola, M. 1988. Skogen som finländskt kulturlandskap. Summary: The forest as cultural landscape. Nord nytt 33/34: 71-80. Lov av 9. juni 1978 nr. 50 om kulturminner. (Law concerning cultural remains.) Miljoverndepartementet, rundskriv T-5/79. (In Norwegian.). 340 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Lov om naturbeskyttelse. (Law concerning nature protection.) Lov nr. 9 af 3. januar 1992. (In Danish.) Lov om naturvern. (Law concerning nature protection.) 19. juni. Nr. 63, 1970. (In Nor wegian.) Lov om planleegning. (Law concerning planning.) Lov nr. 388 af 6. juni 1991. (In Danish.) Miettinen, M. 1990. Skogens kulturhistoria i Finland: arkeologiska och historiska aspekter. (The cultural history of forest in Finland: archaelogical and histori cal aspects.) Nordisk Bygd 4: 24-26. (In Swedish.) Museiverket. (National Board of Antiguites.) Museiverket, Helsingfors. Brochure. (In Swedish.) Museoviraston toimintakertomus 1990. (Annual report of the National Board of Antiguites 1990.) 1991. Museiverket, Helsingfors. 32 pp. (In Finnish.) Myklebust, D. (ed.). 1988. Kulturarv og vern: bevaring af kulturminner i Norge. (Cultural heritage and protection: preservation of cultural remains in Norway.) Universitetsforlaget. (In Norwegian.) Naturvärdslagen. (Law concerning nature protection.) 1964:822. (In Swedish.) Nielsen, I. 1987. Bevaringsarbejdet i andre lande. (Preservation in other countries.) In: Nielsen, I. (Ed). Bevar din arv. (Preserve your heritage.) (In Danish.) Nielsen, V. 1987. Det er pä hoje tid. (It's high time.) In: Nielsen, I. (Ed). Bevar din Arv. (Preserve your heritage.) (In Danish.) Olwig, K.R. 1990. Naturens synliggorelse og natursynets usynliggorelse. (Making nature visible and making nature perception unvisible.) In: Landet og Loven. Skov-og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. p. 95-100. (In Danish.) Olwig, K..R. 1987. Parker, skove, kosmologier og naturpolitik: en antologi om det äbne land. (Parks, forests, cosmologies and nature policy: an anthology of the open land.) In: Bramsnass, A. et ai. (eds.). Sadan ligger landet. Dansk Byplan laboratorium. (In Danish.) Ormio, H. 1988. Naturskyddsomrädena som etnologiska museer. Summary: Nature reserve as an ethnological museum. Nord nytt 33/34: 144-149. Parker, M. 1980. Vern om faste kulturminner: en samfunnsoppgave. (Protection of concrete cultural remains: society's task.) Universitetsforlaget. (In Norwe gian.) Plan-og bygningslov. (Law concerning planning and building.) 14. juni. Nr. 77 1985. (In Norwegian.) Reunala, A. 1987. Skog: inte bara trä. Skogens immateriella värden. Summary: Immaterial values of forests. Sveriges Skogsvärdsforbunds Tidsskrift 1/1987: 9-13. Reunala, A. 1987. The Forest and the Finns. In: Engman, M. & Kirby, D. (eds.). Fin land: people, nation, state. Hurst, London, p. 38-56. Skogbruksloven. (Forestry Act.) Mai 1965. (In Norwegian.) Skovloven. (Forestry Act.) Lov nr. 383 af7. juni 1989. (In Danish.) Thorarinsson, T. 1974. Thjö in lif i en skögurinn do. Arsrit skograktarfelags Islands. (In Icelandic.) 341 Cultural heritage in multiple-use forestry Thorsen, S. 1984. Levende fortidsminder. Plejebogen: en händbog i pleje af naturom räder og kulturlandskaber. (Living relics of the past: a handbook for the man agement of natural areas and cultural landscapes.) Fredningsstyrelsen. (In Danish.) Tvengsberg, P.M. 1988. Finnskogen brukes: bonder, finner og godseieres utnyttelse av granskogsomrädene pä Östlandet in Norge 1600-1900. (Forestry in Finnskogen: peasants', Finns' and farm owners' utilization of the spruce for est areas in Östlandet in Norway.) Nord nytt 33/34: 59-70. (In Swedish.) Wikan, S. 1988. Fleretnisk bruk av grenseskogene i Finnmark. Summary: The poly ethnic use of border forests in the Pasvik Valley of Finnmark. Nord nytt 33/34: 17-24. Worsoe, E. 1988. Historiske driftsformer som relikter i det danske landskab. Sum mary: Historical utilization forms as relicts in the Danish landscape. In: For tidsminder og kulturhistorie. Miljoministeriet/Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Antikvariske Studier 9. 61. Forordning om Skovenes Udskiftning, Vedligeholdelse og Fredning i Kongeriget Danmark. (Ordinance concerning trading, maintenance and protection of for ests in the kingdom of Danmark.) 1805. (In Danish.) Personal communications Guömundur Ölafson, 1991, Flead of the Archeological Department, National Muse um of Iceland. 342 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 343 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services 13 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services Per-Olov Johansson1 Bengt Kriström 2 Leif Mattsson 3 Abstract Many forest goods (or services) have no market price to reflect their value. While timber is priced on the timber market, the forest as an environment for recreation is, in most parts of the Nordic countries, a non-priced public good. The latter results primarily from the Right of Public Access ("Everyman's Right"), which also allows berry and mushroom picking, irrespective of who is the owner of the forest. Non-priced goods include, for example, endan gered species. Besides "fully" priced and non-priced goods, there are "par tially" priced goods, such as game for hunting. The article summarizes a number of Nordic studies which focus on the value of forest goods other than timber. Basically, two different methods have been used in the evaluation of such goods, namely the Travel Cost Method and the Contingent Valuation Method, the latter being used more often than the former. Keywords: economic valuation, hunting, forest recreation, fragile forests, endangered species, methodology. 1 Stockholm School of Economics P.0.80x 6501, S— 11383 Stockholm, Sweden 2 Stockholm School of Economics P.0.80x 6501, S— 11383 Stockholm, Sweden 3 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Department of Forest Economics S-90183 Umeä, Sweden 344 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 13.1 Introduction In the Nordic countries, timber production for the sawmill and pulpmill industry is often considered to be the most important function of the forest. A very large portion of forest economic research has therefore been focused on timber production problems. However, forests produce many goods and serv ices, and the relative importances of these are changing in course of time and from place to place. Multiple use of forests was normal practice in the old agrarian society. After a trend towards "single use of forests" during the first half of this century, which can be seen, for example, in the development of "timber-orientated" forest legislation, we are again facing a situation where multiple use is a matter of course. As is well known, different categories of forest users make different de mands upon the forest, regarding, for example, its age structure, flora and fau na. This means that meeting the demands from one category will often affect another category's use of the forest. In other words, multiple use of forests in volves external effects, and these may be either negative or positive. In some cases, the external effects are so negative that one type of forest use will ne cessitate the exclusion of another type. For example, this is the background to the creation of woodland national parks - a forest "shaped" for timber produc tion is contradictory to the kind of environment that certain species of flora and fauna require. Generally, however, external effects are not so negative as to exclude the possibility of multiple use. Then the question is: to what extent one forest use must decrease if another forest use is increased; and if the external effects are positive, the question is: to what extent one forest use could be in creased as the other is increased? The overall question is: how should different forest uses or forest functions be balanced against each other? Answering that question is, of course, fraught with considerable problems. These problems are aggravated by, among other things, the fact that many for est goods (or services) have no market price to reflect their value. While timber is priced on the timber market, the forest as an environment for recreation is, in most parts of the Nordic countries, a non-priced public good. The latter re sults primarily from the Right of Public Access ("Everyman's Right"), which allows, for example, anyone to pick berries and mushrooms. Non-priced goods also include endangered species in the forest. Besides "fully" priced and non-priced goods, there are "partially" priced goods, such as game for hunt ing. Accordingly, for many forest goods the economic value is not to be found in a market price. Basically, two groups of methods are used in the valuation of such goods. A direct method utilizes questionnaires or personal interviews in order to make a sample of individuals to reveal their preferences for the good in question. Put another way, in the absence of a "real" market for the good, it is valuated via a hypothetical market presented to the respondents. This is often referred to as the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). For a de- 345 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services tailed description of different methods, see Johansson (1987). An indirect method means that the value of the good is estimated via complementary pri vate goods. The Travel Cost Method (TCM), introduced by Hotelling (1947) and further developed by Clawson (1959), and Clawson and Knetsch (1966), is a well known example of an indirect method often used to estimate the value of specific recreation areas. The basis for the valuation is thus data of visit rates and travel expenditures obtained by questionnaires or interviews. A number of Nordic studies on the economics of multiple use of forests have been published in recent years. Some are empirical and some have a the oretical approach. In the following, empirical studies will be summarized in order to give an idea of how to measure the economic value of forest goods (uses) other than timber (production) and the magnitudes of such values. These studies include hunting, forest recreation, fragile forests and endangered species living in forests. To facilitate comparisons, Table 13.1 supplies basic information on and results from each study (researcher(s), country, year, com modity, and value). Value measures reported are most often WTP and/or WTA, in both cases results from the CVM. WTP stands for willingness to pay for an environmental improvement or for preventing an environmental loss, while WTA stands for willingness to accept compensation for an environmen tal loss (or for an environmental improvement that fails to appear). In some cases two different WTP measures are reported, continuous and discrete. In a continuous WTP question, the respondent is asked to state the absolute amount of his/her willingness to pay, while, in a discrete WTP question, the respond ent is "only" able to reject or accept a suggested amount, which is varied for the individuals in the sample. The final section focuses on methodological problems, where we discuss WTP versus WTA measures, continuous versus discrete WTP questions, un certainty, and the overall environmental value. 13.2 Hunting Mattsson has undertaken two CVM surveys on hunting in Sweden. The first one was undertaken in 1986 and focused on moose hunting in the county of Västerbotten in the northern part of the country (see Mattsson and Kri ström 1987). 272 hunters living in the county answered the questionnaire. Two thirds of these were asked about their WTP, and one third was asked a WTA question. The hunters were thus asked to state their maximum willingness to pay to be able to continue their hunting, or to state the minimum amount that they would accept as a compensation for stopping hunting. The figure for the WTP -group was 3,150 SEK on an average per year. The corresponding fig ure for the WTA -group was 7,400 SEK. The basic valuation question referred to the current year's hunting, but the hunters were also questioned concerning their WTP if the current number of moose was doubled, and 346 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 13.1 Studies of non-timber values (arranged in the same order as in the main text). Publication Country Year Commodity Method Measure/Mean value Mattsson & Kriström (1987) Sweden 1986 Moose WTP WTA 3150 SEK/hunter and year 7400 SEK/hunter and year Mattsson (1990) Sweden 1987 Moose and other game WTP WTP 3680 SEK/hunter and year 2370 SEK/hunter and year Social (1989) Norway 1988 Moose WTP WTA 3300 NOK/hunter and year 6900 NOK/hunter and year Ovaskainen et ai. (1992) Finland 1988 Grouse WTP 1500 FIM/hunter and year Schei (1991) Norway 1990 Grouse WTP 4970 NOK/"tourist hunter" and year Johansson (1990) Sweden 1987 Moose WTP 2530 SEK/hunter and year Boiö (1985) Sweden 1985 Nature reserve WTP TMC 730 SEK/visit 760 SEK/visit Bostedt & Mattsson (1992) Sweden 1991 Recreation area WTP 990 SEK/visit Christensen (1984) Denmark 1977 Recreation area TCM 18-36 DKK consumer surplus/visit Linddal & Jensen (1991) Denmark 1987- 1988 Recration area WTP 12 DKK/visit Sievänen et ai. (1992) Finland 1991 Recreation area WTP 12 FIM/visit Mattsson & Li (1993) Sweden 1991 Goods other than timber WTP cont. WTP disc. 2420 SEK/individual and year 5800 SEK/individual and year Kriström (1990) Sweden 1987 Preservation of fragile forests WTP cont. WTP disc. 50 SEK/household and year 125 SEK/household and year Johansson (1989) Sweden 1987 Endangered species WTP 85 SEK/household and year Navrud et ai. (1990) Norway 1989 Selective forestry Preservation of virgin forests WTP WTP 35-72 NOK/visit 46-96 NOK/visit Hoen (1991) Norway 1990 Cautious forestry WTP 274 NOK/household and year Saastamoinen (1982) Finland 1978 Recreation Reindeer herding Gross receipts of tourism enter- prises in the area = 8.9 mill. FIM Total value of reindeer produc- tion in the area = 0.67 mill. FIM Johansson & Zavisic (1989) Sweden 1989 Reduction of WTP environmental damage (excluding recreation activities) 1600 SEK/household and year 347 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services halved, respectively. In the second study (Mattsson 1990), undertaken in 1987, 1,700 hunters throughout Sweden answered a similar questionnaire. The main difference being that these hunters were asked only about their WTP, not only for moose hunting but also for other game species. For the county of Västerbotten, which is represented in both studies, the average WTP for moose hunting turned out to be almost the same in both studies. This indicates that there is stability in the answers for (consecutive) years. For the country as a whole, the average WTP for hunting game other than moose was 2,370 SEK per year. Similar studies have been undertaken in Norway and Finland. In a study by Sodal (1989), 1,500 moose hunters in the counties of Hedmark and Ostfold in Norway answered a WTP and a WTA question. Both counties lie in the best moose areas, but have different patterns of land ownership and hunting tradi tions. The questionnaire design was to a large extent the same as in the first of the Swedish studies, which made it possible to directly compare answers and estimate values in the two countries. Not surprisingly, the results and estimates turned out to be rather similar to those in the Swedish study. The average WTP for moose hunting was about 3,300 NOK per year. The corresponding figure for the WTA question was 6,900 NOK. However, while in the Swedish study the recreational part and the meat part of the total moose hunting value was about 40 % and 60 %, respectively, corresponding figures in the Norwegian study were about 16 % and 84 %. In a Finnish study by Ovaskainen, Savolainen and Sievänen (1992), ques tionnaires were sent to hunters in two different regions - Lammi and Keski- Pohja. In this case, the questionnaire design was similar to the second of the Swedish studies, but focused solely on the three common grouse species (fam ily Tetraonide). The average WTP was found to be about 1,500 FIM per year in Keski-Pohja (in 1988), which is similar to the result in the Swedish study concerning these grouse species. In Lammi, the WTP value was about 50 % lower. As in the Swedish study, the recreational part of the total grouse hunting value was more than 80 %. Consequently, the meat value is a minor part. Fur thermore, as in the other hunting studies, the results suggest that the hunting value is clearly affected by the stock of game. Schei (1991) interviewed 52 tourist hunters in the Finnmarksvidda in northern Norway about, among other things, their WTP for grouse hunting in the area. He found an average WTP of nearly 5,000 NOK, i.e. far higher than the figures from Sweden and Finland, as well as less variation in WTP. This difference is explained by the fact that tourist hunters in Finnmarksvidda rep resent a homogeneous category of hunters, very keen on their hunting, who travel long distances to be able to hunt there. In the studies mentioned above, hunters were asked about their WTP for the hunting, conditional on the outcome of this year's hunting. Johansson (1990), on the other hand, asked a sample of hunters of their WTP for hunting the forthcoming season. This approach comes closer to the working of a mar- 348 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries ket, since a market forces the consumer to accept or reject an offer conditional on his expectations of the properties of the considered commodity. Economic theory suggests that the resulting ex ante WTP should be lower than the one generated by the "ex post" WTP questions asked in other studies (at least for risk-averse hunters). This was also confirmed by the results from the study - the average (ex ante) WTP for moose hunting was 2,530 SEK per year. The reader interested in detailed comparisons of the two approaches is referred to Johansson (1990). 13.3 Forest recreation In March 1983 it was suggested that a nature reserve protected from forest harvesting be created in the Välä Valley, which is a tourist area in northern Sweden. In mountainous regions such as the Välä Valley, cutting may cause irreversible damage to the environment. For this reason, the Swedish Envi ronment Protection Agency initiated a social cost-benefit analysis of the two scenarios, i.e. preservation versus forestry. The study was carried out by Bojö (1985). To estimate the benefits of preserving the area, 282 visitors were interviewed about, among other things, their willingness to contribute to pres ervation (compensation for economic losses to the forest owners) and their travel costs. The CVM and the Travel Cost Method (TCM) both produced an average value per visit of 730-760 SEK (including travel costs of 460 SEK). This result is rather similar to that of a study by Bostedt and Mattsson (1992). They studied a tourist area in southern Sweden, Risebo, and estimated (using CVM) the average WTP for the forest environment in the area to be 990 SEK per visit (the average visit in the area lasting 4.5 days). As in the study by Bojö (1985), TCM was also used in a Danish study un dertaken by Christensen (1984), in which he focused on the recreation value of two forest areas -Jaegersborg Dyrehave og Hegn and Hareskovene og Jon strup Vang. These recreation areas are (as opposed to the tourist areas Välä Valley and Risebo mentioned above) located in densely populated regions, and their use is characterized by "short-time visits". The results indicated that the Jaegersborg area, on the outskirts of Copenhagen, was more important. In this area the consumer surplus, i.e. the total recreation value minus actual costs for the recreation, was in the range of 18-36 DKK per visit. This means around 10 million DKK for the total number of annual visits in the area (in 1977). Within the large Danish project "Skov og Folk" (Forest and People), an other study of forest recreation value was carried out by Linddal and Jensen (1991). They focused on an area called Vestmager, and, using a CVM ap proach, 75 visitors were interviewed about their WTP. The average WTP turned out to be slightly more than 12 DKK per visit. Considering about 475,000 visits per year in the area, the total recreation value of it amounts to 349 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services nearly 6 million DKK per year. A similar study was made in Finland by Sievänen, Pouta and Ovaskainen (1992). Visitors to the Luukkaa area, just outside Helsinki, were asked to fill out a questionnaire handed over to them while they were in the area. As in the Danish study, a WTP question focused on a hypothetical entrance fee. Here, the average WTP for a visit was about 12 FIM. A Swedish study by Mattsson and Li (1993) focused on non-timber values of the forests in Västerbotten county. A CVM approach was used, where the respondents were asked both a continuous and a discrete WTP question, as well as questions about preferences and habits in relation to forests. The con tinuous WTP question resulted in 2,420 SEK per individual per year on aver age. The corresponding figure for the discrete WTP question was as high as 5,800 SEK (the difference between the results from continuous and discrete WTP questions will be discussed in the final section). Of this value, about two thirds were on-site use value, i.e. attributable to, for example, picking berries, hiking or simply taking walks in the forest, while one third was off-site (indi rect) value given by the view of the forest. About three quarters of the on-site use value was based on the Right of Public Access. By combining the WTP data with the data on people's preferences regarding forest attributes, it was also shown that the non-timber value of the forests in the county could be in creased considerably from the present level. Such an increase would necessi tate a decrease in clearcutting with artificial regeneration in favour of natural regeneration using advance growth or seed trees, as well as a reduction of spruce in favour of broadleaved trees. 13.4 Fragile forests and endangered species Kriström (1990) investigated methods for assessing the value people place on preserving fragile and virgin forests. In a questionnaire, a sample of Swedes were shown a map depicting eleven areas with such forests, and were informed that the areas are important for recreation (for present and future generations) as well as for many endangered species. According to a continu ous valuation question, the mean WTP for preserving the forests in question was about 50 SEK per household per year, and the corresponding figure for a discrete WTP question was 125 SEK (we will come back to some methodo logical aspects of this study in the final section). Johansson (1989) asked a sample of Swedes (200 people, out of whom 122 replied) about their WTP for measures taken to save endangered species - an imals, birds, and plants - living in Swedish forests. The respondents were asked to make contributions to programs that would save some or all of the en dangered species. Four different programs were suggested. First, the respond ents were asked about their WTP for a program that would save 50 % of the species. The respondents were then asked about programs which would save 350 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 75 % and 100 % of the species, respectively. Finally, the respondents were asked about a program designed in such a way that the probability of the pro gram saving all species is 0.5, and of it saving 50 % of the species also 0.5. It turned out that the results were in accordance with the predictions of economic theory. For example, WTP was an increasing function of the number of spe cies preserved. The average WTP for the program saving all 300 endangered species was 85 SEK per household per year (in the final section we will come back to this study). A CVM study undertaken by Navrud, Simonsen, Solberg and Wind (1990) focused on different forest management practices in mountainous forests in the area of Hirkjolen in southeast Norway. Clearcut forestry, selection forestry (selective thinning) and preservation of virgin forests were described as alter natives for 252 interviewed persons - 104 hikers, 100 car tourists and 48 cot tage tourists. These user groups were asked about their WTP - per visit to the area - for having selection forestry or for preserving virgin forests instead of clearcutting in the area. Hikers showed the highest WTP - a mean value of 72 NOK for selection forestry and 96 NOK for preservation of virgin forests, as compared to clearcut forestry. The corresponding figures for car tourists were 35 and 46 NOK, and for cottage tourists 63 and 55 NOK. This amounts to a total WTP from the three user groups of 3.3 and 4.4 million NOK annually for selection forestry and preservation of virgin forests, respectively. These amounts are considerably higher than the net income from clearcut forestry in the area. Another Norwegian study of people's valuation of a more cautious forestry and preservation of coniferous forests is reported by Hoen (1991). 1,204 per sons throughout Norway were interviewed. Different effects of a more cau tious forestry and forest preservation were described to the respondents, and then they were asked to rank these effects. Preservation of endangered plants and animals and preservation of virgin forests for descendants were consid ered to be very important, while, for example, improved possibilities of pick ing berries and mushrooms was ranked lower. The mean WTP per year for a more cautious forestry was 274 NOK per household. Analysis of multiple use of fragile forests has also been the object of a Finnish study, undertaken by Saastamoinen (1982). He studied forestry, out door recreation and reindeer herding in the Saariselkä area in Finnish Lapland. This study differs from the others in the sense that neither CVM nor TCM was used to estimate non-priced values. The recreationists' (tourists') actual expen ditures in the area were considered as to reflect the recreational value of the area, and it was postulated that this measure offers a realistic basis for compar isons with the economic values of the other land uses. Recreation (tourism) turned out to be the most important land use. The value of total output of this land use amounted to nearly 9 million FIM in 1978. This was 1.8 times greater than that of timber production (the area is close to the timber line) and 12.7 times greater than that of reindeer herding. 351 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services 13.5 Methodological problems and discussion Willingness to pay versus willingness to accept compensation, and continuous versus discrete willingness to pay questions The difference between willingness to pay (WTP) and willingness to accept compensation (WTA) is, according to some researchers, a continuing embar rassment for the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). While Hanemann (1991) provides an interesting explanation for the possible disparity between these measures from the viewpoint of economic theory, researchers may not have reached a consensus yet regarding why many studies show a large dif ference between WTP and WTA. Mattsson and Kriström (1987) as well as Sodal (1989) report both WTP and WTA measures in their moose hunting studies, finding that WTA is about 2-3 times larger than WTP. Other studies reveal even larger differences. The past decade has seen a bit of a shift from the use of the continuous WTP question to the use of the discrete WTP question. These questions differ in how much leeway the respondent is given when answering. In the former case the respondent is, as mentioned earlier, able to state exactly the WTP, while in the latter case, he/she is "only" able to reject or accept a suggested amount - a bid (which is varied across the individuals in the sample). The amount of information received is therefore very different in these two set ups, and requires very different estimation techniques and study designs. In general, the discrete question approach is more demanding in these two re spects, since it requires several assumptions not needed in the continuous question approach. There are two reasons why the discrete WTP question is currently a popu lar technique, despite the relative drawbacks associated with it. Firstly, it re sembles much more closely our ordinary market decision to reject or accept a given price for a good. The second is that this technique is less vulnerable to strategic responses, since the respondent cannot state a "very large" or a "very small" sum. The discrete question technique needs two sets of assumptions. The first is how to distribute the bids, i.e. the number of different bids, the magnitude of each bid and the number of respondents (ex ante) to each bid. A bad distribu tion of the bids can easily lead to biased results, as can be seen by imagining an extreme case when all respondents accept the bids given in the survey. In this case or, if all respondents reject the bids presented, the information is not very useful. Several studies may suffer from a bad ("unfortunate") distribution of the bids (see, for example, Bishop & Heberlein 1979, Johansson & Kriström 1988). When the design rule has been accepted and the survey results collected, the mean WTP still has to be estimated from the set of "yes"/"no" answers to the proposed bids. Several suggestions have been made in literature on how to 352 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries tackle this problem. However, the estimated mean WTP may be very sensitive to the statistical assumptions that have to be made, which is one of the draw backs of the discrete question technique. This brief discussion suggests that it is probably too early to say which of the two techniques, discrete or continuous WTP questions, will be more pre dominant in the future. As indicated previously, the two techniques gave dif ferent results in a practical application. The discrete question technique tends to give a higher mean WTP than the continuous question technique. It is diffi cult to explain, disregarding estimation problems, why people may interpret these two types of WTP questions differently. Psychologists have suggested that people tend to use any type of information as an anchor when providing a valuation when there is an element of uncertainty. In the study by Kriström (1990) of preserving fragile and virgin forests, both types of WTP questions were asked. The sample was split into two parts, subsample A and subsample B. Subsample A received a discrete as well as a continuous WTP question, and subsample B only a continuous WTP question. The questionnaires were iden tical in other respects. A test of the anchoring hypothesis, i.e. whether the mean WTP differs between subsample A and subsample B, was rejected. Fig ure 13.1 gives a graphical display of the distributions.Thus, we plot the pro portion (0.0-1.0) of "yes" -answers to each proposed bid. It is seen that the distribution for the discrete WTP data is constantly outside the one for the con tinuous WTP data. Consequently, both the mean and the median will be higher when calculated from discrete WTP data. Similar results were found in the study by Mattsson and Li (1993), as mentioned earlier. Figurel3. l Willingness to pay distributions-the case of fragile and virgin forests in Sweden. 353 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services Uncertainty and the overall willingness to pay for improved environmen tal quality Many public sector programs involve various elements of uncertainty. In par ticular, the outcome of a proposed change in environmental quality is impos sible to predict with certainty. Still, most valuation studies "suppress" any uncertainty, or use money measures designed for the certainty case. As men tioned earlier, Johansson (1989) explicitly introduced uncertainty over a pro gram aiming at the preservation of endangered species existing in Swedish forests. Each respondent was asked for his/her WTP for four different pro grams, out of which one had uncertain (risky) outcomes. The basic idea with the study was to check how respondents consider risk in their valuations. It was found, among other things, that there is a difference in risk attitudes between male and female respondents. For female respondents the results confirm the hypothesis that there is risk aversion. Male respondents, on the other hand, seem to have risk aversion only if many species may become extinct, while they are more inclined to accept risky outcomes if just a few species are threatened. The study confirms that one can meaningfully ask people about their val uation of public sector programs of which the outcome cannot be known in ad vance with certainty. Since uncertainty is an inevitable aspect of many environmental projects, further attempts to explicitly introduce risks into the valuation context seems to be an important challenge for environmental econ omists. When respondents answer a WTP question focused on a specific environ mental commodity, they may fail to recollect all the other environmental com modities they enjoy. In other words, respondents' reports on their WTP may be higher than the specific commodity's "true share" of their "paying capaci ties" (disposable incomes). Accordingly, to add up the values of different en vironmental commodities may - if these values are based on separate WTP questions - result in an exaggeration of the overall environmental value. To re duce this problem, the WTP question can be focused on a set of environmental commodities, or on a set of measures taken to reduce environmental damage. The latter approach was used by Johansson and Zavisic (1989), who report an annual average WTP of 1,600 SEK per household in Sweden. This amount of money was interpreted as being "reserved" for measures such as new or im proved pollution treatment and purchases of land to preserve endangered spe cies, fragile forests, an open landscape, etc. Thus, the sum does not include for example the value of "pure" recreation activities (hiking, camping, hunting, etc.) or "private" risks (such as radon radiation in houses). Finally, it should be mentioned that the sample in Johansson and Zavisic's (1989) study (500 adult Swedes of whom 250 returned the questionnaire) was also asked to allocate a 100 million SEK increase of government spending on health care, child care, education, labour market policy, the environment, and 354 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries other measures. It turned out that the average respondent spent 30 % each on health care and the environment. There are, however, considerable regional differences. Those living in depressed but "clean" parts of the country spent more on labour market policy measures and less on the environment than those living in large cities with more severe environmental problems. This result and other similar results presented by Johansson and Zavisic (1989) lend some support to the hypothesis that people can meaningfully state their WTP for various public sector programs. References Bishop, R. & Heberlein, T. 1979. Measuring values of extra market goods: are indi rect methods biased? American Journal of Agricultural Economics 61: 926- 930. Bojö, J. 1985. Kostnadsnyttoanalys av fjällnära skogar: fallet Välädalen. (Cost-bene fit analysis of forests close to mountains: case Välädalen.) Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Bostedt, G. & Mattsson, L. 1992. The value of forests for tourism in Sweden: an empirical study. In: "Forestry and environment: economic perspectives". Uni versity of Alberta, Department of Rural Economy, Project Report. Edmonton. Christensen, J.B. 1984. Recreation economics: some results from a Danish study. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). Multi ple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120: 52-59. Clawson, M. 1959. Methods of measuring the demand and value of outdoor recrea tion. Resources for the Future, Reprint 10. Washington D.C. Clawson, M. & Knetsch, J. 1966. Economics of outdoor recreation. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Hanemann, W.M. 1991. Willingness to pay and willingness to accept: how much can they differ? American Economic Review 81: 635-647. Hoen, H.F. 1991. Flersidig skogbruk og barskogvern: resultater fra en nasjonal undersokelse. (Multiple-use forestry and protection of coniferous forests: results of a national study.) Statens Fagtjeneste for Landbruk, Faginfo 8: 110- 119. (In Norwegian.) Hotelling, H. 1947. Unpublished letter to Director of National Park Service. Johansson. P.-O. 1987. The economic theory and measurement of environmental benefits. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Johansson, P.-O. 1989. Valuing public goods in a risky world: an experiment. In: Fol mer, H. & Lerland, E. (eds.). Valuation methods and policy making in envi ronmental economics. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, p. 37—48. Johansson, P.-O. 1990. Willingness to pay measures and expectations: an experi ment. Applied Economics 22: 313-329. Johansson, P.-O. & Kriström, B. 1988. Measuring values for improved air quality from discrete response data: two experiments. Journal of Agricultural Eco nomics 39: 439-445. 355 Economic value of non-timber forest goods and services Johansson, P.-O. & Zavisic, S. 1989. Svenska folkets miljöbudget. (The environmen tal budget of Swedish people.) Ekonomisk debatt 17: 472-474. (In Swedish.) Kriström, B. 1990. Valuing environmental benefits using the contingent valuation method. Umeä Economic Studies 219. Linddal, M. & Jensen F.S. 1991. Vaerdi-undersogelse af friluftslivet pä Vestamager. (Value study of outdoor recreation on Vestamager.) Ugeskrift for Jordbrug 35/ 36. (In Danish.) Mattsson, L. 1990. Hunting in Sweden: extent, economic values and structural prob lems. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 5(4): 563-573. Mattsson, L. & Kriström, B. 1987. The economic value of moose as a hunting object. Scandinavian Forest Economics 29: 27-37. Mattsson, L. & Li, C. 1993. The non-timber value of northern Swedish forests: an economic analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 8(3): 426^134. Navrud, S., Simonsen, K., Solberg, B. & Wind, M. 1990. Valuing environmental effects of different management practices in mountainous forests in Norway: a survey of recreationists' preferences and willingness to pay. Paper presented at the XIX World Congress of lUFRO, Montreal, Canada, August 1990. Ovaskainen, V., Savolainen, H. & Sievänen, T. 1992. The benefits of managing for ests for grouse habitats: a contingent valuation experiment. Scandinavian For est Economics 33: 263-274. Saastamoinen, O. 1982. Economics of multiple-use forestry in the Saariselkä forest and fell area. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 104. 102 pp. Schei, T. 1991. Environmental quality and benefit: A case study of Finnmark and the grouse resource: the tourist hunter segment. Finnmark Distriktshogskole, Avdelningen for okonomi og Administrasjon, Arbeidsnotat 2. Sievänen, T., Pouta, E. & Ovaskainen, V. 1992. Problems of measuring recreation value given everyman's rights. Scandinavian Forest Economics 33: 231-243. Sodal, D.P. 1989. okonomisk verdsetting av elgjakt. (Defining economic value of moose hunting.) Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Forest Economics, Scientific report 1. (In Norwegian.) 356 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 357 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups 14 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups Katarina Eckerberg 1 Abstract The article describes multiple-use forest policy in Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden, in particular as it relates to the preservation of nature and recre ation values. The outcome of legislative and administrative measures is ana lyzed in relation to differences and similarities in the forestry sector of these countries. The explanatory factors include relative economic importance of forests, the role of the forest industry and the location of forests in relation to the population, ownership structure and the influence of forest owners. Also, the influence of professional culture and attitudes towards multiple-use for estry among implementing agencies and practitioners, and of environmental groups, play an important role in forest policy decision making. Multiple-use regulations were first introduced in the mid-1970s in Norway and Sweden. General environmental goals are today incorporated in the forestry legislation of all four countries, but with limited enforcement possibilities. Conflicts between environmental protection and commercial forestry developed from the late 1960 s onwards. Economic subsidies to forest operations, which coun teracted environmental concerns, increased during the 1980 s, but have been cut back in the 19905. Campaigns to educate forest professionals and forest owners in environmental protection were launched in the mid-1980s. Practi cal results from changes in attitudes still remain, however, to be evaluated. Keywords: forest policy, timber production, recreation, nature conservation, legislation, administration, non-governmental organizations. ' University of Umeä Department of Political Science S-90187 Umeä, Sweden 358 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 14.1 Introduction 2 In this chapter, political, administrative and juridical measures for multiple use forestry are analyzed, in particular as they relate to the preservation of nature and recreation values. We look at in what ways the four Nordic coun tries 3 of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden have tried to cope with con flicts between commodity and amenity values in forestry. To what extent are their approaches similar or different? By what means do the governments influence the forest owners' management that affects environmental values? To which extent are multiple-use regulations included in the legislation? And if they are included, how does the administration work to enforce such regu lations? Which agencies have been designed by the governments to imple ment multiple-use forest policy? And how do they prioritize environmental concerns in comparison with commercial forestry? The outcome of legislative and administrative measures related to multi ple-use forestry is analyzed for the four countries. Without claiming to present a fully fledged explanatory model, four factors are solicited to cast light on the differences and similarities in multiple-use forest policy. These factors in clude (1) the forestry sector's relative economic importance, the role of forest industry and location of forests in relation to population, (2) ownership struc ture and influence from forest owners, (3) professional culture and attitudes to wards multiple-use forestry among implementing agencies and practitioners and, finally, (4) influence from environmental groups 4 . The first two factors are described in the introductory analysis of the four Nordic countries (section 14.2), whereas forest-environmental legislation and administration, professional culture and environmental interest groups are ex amined separately for each country. Following the description of the situation in the four countries according to the four factors outlined above, the final sec tion compares and discusses the findings, including outlining of possible fu ture development. 2. Apart from explicit literature citations, this chapter builds on general information from a variety of brochures and internal documentation from forest and environ mental authorities, interest groups such as forest owners associations, state for ests, and environmental groups from Norway, Finland, Denmark and Sweden. In addition, a total of 40 one-hour interviews have been carried out in August-Sep tember 1991 with representatives from the different authorities, interest groups and researchers involved in forest-environmental policy in three countries: 13 interviews in Norway, 15 in Finland and 12 in Denmark. The interviews are tape recorded and transcribed. The Swedish case draws heavily upon Eckerbere (1990). 3. Iceland is excluded in this analysis because of its very different forest situation by which comparisons of forest-environmental policy are impracticable. 4. The term "environmental groups" or "environmental organizations" is used here to include both ecological, recreational and cultural interest groups, if not explicitly described otherwise. 359 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups 14.2 The four Nordic countries Multiple-use forest policy in all the Nordic countries can be described as a multidimensional policy field because of its relationships to many sectoral policy areas. These include such diverse fields as economic, industrial, cul tural, forestry, agricultural, environmental and international policy. Examin ing all these different policies' influences on and relationships to multiple-use forest policy is too big a task for the limited scope of this chapter. However, it is important to bear in mind that a multitude of public and private institutions are involved in the formulation, implementation and monitoring of such pol icy, and that various economic, administrative and legislative measures from these sectors influence what can be done in forestry practice. Hence, in each of the countries, land-use policy regulatory instruments in clude building and planning legislation which is implemented through munic ipal governments, and, to a various extent, coordinated by regional and national planning units. Moreover, cultural remnants are protected through legislation on ancient monuments. Nature conservation legislation regulates nature reserves and national parks, and outlines major goals for preservation of the environment, along with environmental protection legislation, which contains regulatory measures to protect the environment in industrial opera tions. Special legislation restricts the use of chemicals and other potential neg ative effects of forestry operations, such as the impact on water quality and quantity. Hunting regulations restrict permission to pursue wild animals. Spe cial regulations apply to forest grazing by reindeer husbandry. Agricultural legislation directs the management of borderline areas between forest and ar able land. Forestry legislation, finally, is the main juridical instrument for con trolling forest management. In the following country descriptions, for practical reasons emphasis is placed on forestry, nature protection and land-use plan ning legislation although other legislation to some extent also affects multi ple-use forestry. Similarly, a collection of government agencies and private institutions is involved in implementing multiple-use concerns in forestry. Only the major ones are described and analyzed in this chapter, that is, the public forestry and environmental agencies, as well as various kinds of other organizations con cerned with forest management, both semi-private and private. The forest situation The four countries show both similarities and differences in respect to their forest situation. Finland and Sweden are the most dominated by forests, cov ering 65 % and 57 % respectively of the total land area, whereas forests in Norway cover 37 %, and in Denmark only 12 %. In both Sweden and Fin land, forestry accounts for a large part of the country's economy. 360 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Historically, forests in Denmark were almost totally vanished. Cattle and pigs were common in the forest, and trees were frequently cut from the top. Destruction of forests was due to the need for more agriculture and pasture lands. Efforts to stop forest destruction were intensified during the last decades of the 18th century. The 1805 Forestry Act was introduced to preserve remain ing high forests. Forest cover increased by 50 % between the years 1907 and 1976 largely due to economic subsidies to afforestation, and a further increase is expected also in the future. The Right of Public Access traditionally regulated household use of re sources from the forest. After 1880, when the sawmilling industry was intro duced, forestry became a commercial activity, and small-scale home enterprises gradually disappeared as the wood industry took over their role. Nowadays, total production value from the forest sector in Denmark is 7 % of total industrial production value. In 1980, around 35,000 people were em ployed within the forest sector (En fremtidig... 1986). The most productive forests in Norway are located in the southeast, close to the most populated areas, whereas a large part in the central and northern regions is classified as montane forest. These low productive forests are locat ed in the more sparsely populated parts of the country and comprise almost one fourth of the forest land. Like in Sweden and Finland, the montane forest is of great importance for recreation and nature protection, since it is one of the last wilderness areas in Europe {Figure 14.1). Figure 14.1 Montane forests are common in Sweden, Finland and Norway. They have been subject to conflicts between commercial forestry and environmental protection. Photo: K. Eck erbergerberg. 361 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups Figure 14.2 Afforestation is now taking place on marginal agricultural land in Sweden, Finland and Denmark. This has become a controversial issue since many of these former pasture lands are highly valued for nature protection and recreation. Photo: K. Eckerberg. From having played a major role in Norway's economy in the beginning of the century, forest products nowadays account for approximately 10 % of the export income. Some 70,000 people are active within the forest sector, includ ing employment in forest industries. During the last ten years, total employ ment within the forest sector has drastically decreased. At the same time, the crisis in agriculture has led to the closing down of many farms. This has affect ed the status of the forestry sector within Norwegian policy in that its role is diminishing. Finnish forests are the largest per capita in Europe. Starting in the 19505, large areas of agriculture and pasture land have been forested. Also, more than 5.5 million hectares of wetlands have been drained, leading to an increase in the forested area of 11 % (Report of the Finnish... 1989). The age structure has also changed: clearcuttings and the proportion of young stands have generally increased, and old-growth forests have diminished, especially in the northern and eastern parts of the country. The most productive forests are located in the southern parts of the country, dominated by non-industrial private ownership. State forests are in the northern parts and less productive, with large parts be ing montane forests and vast marshlands. In Finland, forestry has always been very important to the country's econ omy. The forest industries account for almost 40 % of the total value of ex ports. Because of the strength of the Finnish forest industry, it has had a key role in Finnish politics. The forest sector is the driving power in the Finnish 362 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries economy, but the "internal" problems and contradictions of the sector (such as nature protection vs. economic exploitation, work vs. recreation) become so cietal problems and cleavages because of the significance of the sector (Kos kinen 1985). The most productive forests in Sweden are located in the southern and middle parts of the country, whereas large areas in the north are covered with less productive forests, including montane forests. The growing stock is con stantly increasing, both because of improved management and afforestation of former farming land (Figure 14.2). The Swedish forest industry still accounts for the largest proportion of ex port income, despite international competition. The forest sector's share of to tal export value was 19 % in 1988. Some 150,000 people are employed within the forest sector. Due to the augmenting mechanization in forest operations, the number of forest workers is, however, rapidly declining. Ownership structure The proportion of state-owned forests in the Nordic countries is not as great as many foreigners may believe. Denmark has the largest proportion of publicly owned forests. Private ownership dominates in all four countries, but the dis tribution between private forest companies and individual holdings varies. Pri vate companies prevail particularly in Sweden, whereas individual ownership is most common in Norway and Finland. The size of management units also differs between the countries. The largest clearcuttings, with their direct effect on the environment, are found in Swedish and Finnish forestry. However, for ests adjacent to more densely populated areas are often environmentally important, particularly in relation to social and recreational values. Although Danish and southern forestry in the other three countries appears less destruc tive in terms of the magnitude of forest operations, it can still be provocative if environmental concerns are not sufficiently taken into account. In Denmark, 34 % of the forests are publicly owned leaving 66 % privately owned. Of the public forests, 88 % are owned by the state and the rest by the counties, municipalities and church. Private forest companies have grown among the private forest owners, but individuals dominate, with 2/3 of the to tal privately owned area, and a total of 26,000 forest owners. The average size of forest holding for the individual forest owner in Denmark is 9 ha (Helles et al. 1984). In Norway, only 17 % of the forests are publicly owned. The state owns most of this, with an emphasis on the northern and montane forests. There are also communal forests, where the local farmers have certain rights to utilize them. About 66 % of the forests are owned by private individuals, some 120,000 in total. A majority of them are farmers who combine forestry with agriculture. As much as 83 % of the private forests are units less than 50 hec tares. Each management unit is thus only 1.5 hectares on average for the 363 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups small-forest owners and 5-7 hectares for the large-forest owners (private and public). The current share between public and private forests in Finland is 64 % owned by individuals, 9 % by private and partly state-owned companies, 4 % common lands owned by various associations (including the church) and the rest is state owned. The historic background to the present distribution of for est land among forest owners deserves special mention. Private ownership of forests adjacent to villages and farms is of ancient origin in Finland. Forests outside of adjacent village or farm land were common lands for centuries. When population increased, many of these were shifted to private or state ownership. The more productive forests became privately owned, while the re mote forest lands in the east and north became state forests (Reunala 1987). Through the Peasant Act in 1918, some 150,000 new independent small farms were created. Also, after the Second World War, 10 % of the total Finn ish land area was handed over to small farmers as land for colonization. The result is that Finnish forest lands are largely private: 110,000 farms in 1901 have become 310,000 today (larger than 2 hectares). The state's share of forest lands has diminished from 35 % in the 1920 s to 24 % today (Reunala 1987). Private forest owners are increasingly urbanized, and half of them are today living in the cities. The average holding in private Finnish forestry is 35 hectares, often divid ed between different locations. In the southern parts, clearcuttings are usually small in size (average some 1.5 hectares), whereas larger cuttings mostly take place in the northern parts on state lands. Up to 26 % of Swedish forests are publicly owned, and most of these are state forests in the northern parts of the country. Private individuals own 49 %. The remaining 25 % are owned by large private companies and mainly located in central Sweden. The Swedish private forest companies, thus represent a large part of the forestry sector compared to the other Nordic countries, where individual private ownership is more predominant. Forest land is distributed among some 240,000 holdings. One third of individual forest owners do not live on their holdings. The size of management units varies greatly between the different forest owners. The Swedish state forests' average-size clearcutting is 14 hectares, private forest companies' 15 hectares, while private individuals' is only 2.5 hectares. The difference reflects the magnitude of multiple-use conflicts, since large-scale forestry is much more subject to environmental critique. 14.3 Denmark Forest-environmental legislation and administration The Ministry of the Environment was established in 1974. At the same time, the National Board of Forestry was moved from the Ministry of Agriculture, 364 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries where it used to belong, to the new Ministry of the Environment. A parallel agency was created to deal with nature protection issues, whereas the Board of Forestry continued to be responsible for the management of state forests. The move to the Ministry of the Environment was a political sign which accelerated the acknowledgement of multiple-use goals on public forest lands. Before 1987, the forestry and environmental protection agencies used to be separate bodies. They were then merged into a new agency, the National Forest and Nature Agency (Skov- og Naturstyrelsen), which took overall re sponsibility for national forest and environmental policy. To increase interest group influence in forest-environmental policy, the minister appointed a For estry Council (Skovräd) composed of representatives from forestry, research institutions and nature conservation and outdoor recreation organizations. This Council is to advise the Minister in forestry matters and suggest policy changes. The Ministry of Agriculture assumes the main responsibility for private forests, although they are also monitored through the National Forest and Na ture Agency districts that are under the Ministry of the Environment. The For estry Act of 1989 is administered by the local Forestry Agency officers, with the assistance of their colleagues in private forestry associations. The Danish Forestry Society (Dansk Skovforening) was established to as sist forest owners in better economic forest management. The Society took the initiative in 1895 to hire consultants who became advisors to small-forest owners, and this was supported by state subsidies in 1919. Another society of forest owners (Hedeselskabet), established in 1866, has initiated large-scale forest plantations as well as smaller plantations and advisory services for the upkeep of these plantations. The work of Hedeselskabet has been supported by state subsidies almost from the beginning, and permanently from the 1880s. The Danish Woodland Owners' Association (De Samvirkende Danske Skov foreninger), established in 1940, today organizes some 7,000 small-forest owners in 16 local associations. The first of these was created in 1904. It is also represented among the 900 members in the Danish Forestry Society. The three above mentioned forest owners' associations are all consulted in forest policy matters, and have close relations to the National Board of Forest ry. In collaboration with the Ministry of Agriculture and the National Forest and Nature Agency, the forest owners' associations produce popular material for the forest owners, informing them of, for example, important legislation and economic subsidies to forest operations. Danish forest policy since 1989 has two main objectives according to the new Forestry Act: production of wood and wood products and production of environmental and recreational values. The previous forest legislation from 1935 had mainly wood production as its goal, although the preparation of the Act reveals that environmental values had also to be taken into account to some extent. The new Forestry Act thus explicitly introduced multiple-use 365 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups values, and also emphasized cooperation, advisory services and information as important means to achieve the new goals. Ways to achieve multiple-use man agement are not specified. Rather, it is a frame law. It is administered by the National Forest and Nature Agency and its 26 state forestry districts. Through the Ministry of Agriculture, subsidies were initiated in 1978 to private forest owners, for clearing and thinning operations, converting low productive forests, establishing broadleaved forests for protection (fire or wind), building of forest roads, draining, and forestry planning (the latter in troduced in 1989). Of the 200 million DKK (33 million US dollars) that the state subsidizes per year, some 40 % is for converting agricultural lands into forests under various laws. Afforestation subsidies for state lands were intro duced in 1989 and for private lands in 1991. Inventories of which areas are suitable for such conversion are carried out by the county (amt) planning units, which are also in charge of regional planning. In this process, zoning of affor estation and agricultural 'minus' areas takes place in consultation with affected interests, including the forest and environmental agencies, land owners and environmental organizations. The goal has been set of doubling the forest area within the next hundred years. This is partially motivated by the decreased profitability of Danish ag riculture, and the government has launched subsidies to reforest marginal ag ricultural lands. Between 10 % and 20 % of Danish agricultural land is expected to be excessive. This is accelerated by the 1992 Common Agricultur al Policy (CAP) of the European Union, by which agriculture production is to be brought down to levels more in line with market demand. Also, according to the new Forestry Act, most of the current forest area is classified as protect ed which means that it must be kept forested (so called "fredskov"). The first Nature Conservation Act from 1917 gave special authorities power to decide on preservation issues. These authorities were established as independent juridical bodies at county level. In the Nature Protection Act of 1969 (Naturfredningsloven), it is stated that Danish nature and landscape val ues must be protected as much as possible, and that the Danish population must be given access to these values. There are two major ways to reach the goals. First, the law specifies public access to private forest lands. Private for ests are legally accessible only by foot or bicycle, during the daytime, and on roads or paths. Small forests (less than 5 hectares) can, however, be closed ac cording to a general Act on Access (Mark- og Vegfredningsloven). Public ac cess to state forest is more extensive than to private forests, and includes access outside roads and paths (by foot) except for, for example, fenced cul tures. Second, since 1980 the Nature Protection Act protects different biotopes that are important to wildlife and plants, requiring special permission from the county administration for any activity that may affect them. This applies to open grasslands ("heder"), water courses, and lakes and marshlands, including forested border zones. The law has been bolstered over time, so that it applies to smaller and smaller areas. 366 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries The Danish people do not have the same right of access to private land as the people in the other Nordic countries. This issue, therefore, is subject to po litical controversy. As long as the population was agrarian, they had personal connections with the private land owners and trespassing was not a problem. But when the population became urbanized, many private land owners started to defend their property rights against "outsiders". In order to develop a com mon understanding on how the right of public access should be interpreted, a committee was formed in the late 1980 s, consisting of governmental as well as non-governmental organizations, including agricultural land owners' or ganizations. This committee has formulated general recommendations and ad vice on how to establish special agreements between private owners and interest groups in cases where recreation pressure is particularly strong. They also agreed on enlarging the right of public access to private forest lands to in clude bicycling, in 1990, and this was introduced by law in 1992. The commit tee can thus function as a complement to regulate conflicts between land owners and recreational interests. Environmental protection and monitoring at national level is located with in the National Forest and Nature Agency. The Nature Conservation Act is ad ministered by 25 nature conservation districts at county and local levels. Part of the total around 150 million DKK that have been allocated annually since 1984 to protect nature areas has recently been decentralized from national to district level. Currently, 160,000 hectares of land are covered by protection regulations, corresponding to approximately 4 % of the country. Professional culture There has been an ongoing change of attitudes within the state forestry administration over the last twenty years, which has recently been speeded up. The merging of forestry and environmental agencies in 1987 meant that professional cultures within the two agencies came closer together, and col laboration increased substantially. New procedures that enhance the partici pation of public interest groups in state forestry have been introduced, and the environmental movement is now largely satisfied with the current manage ment of state forest lands. Although recreational use of Danish forests has been appreciated for a long period of time, there has been a scarcity of materials providing informa tion to practitioners, to strengthen this aspect of forest management. A special information committee consisting of representatives from the Ministries of Agriculture and of the Environment, together with the three forest owners' as sociations, has been formed to develop information materials to support gov ernment policy. The stress on soft steering methods is well articulated in the Ministries (Kristiansen 1988). Several popular brochures aimed at forest own ers, and a more comprehensive handbook for foresters on how to deal with multiple use, have been produced in 1991 and 1992. Informative leaflets on 367 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups hiking in state forests have also been widely distributed by the National Forest and Nature Agency. According to environmentalists, it was only in the late 1980 s that multi ple-use thinking has penetrated the forestry sector in Denmark. This may be because the environmental movement was not as committed to influencing forestry methods in the 1970 s as was its counterpart in other Nordic countries. There was some public discussion on the need to preserve beech forests at that time, but the debate never became politicized to general forest policy matters. Environmental groups The most important group is the Danish Society for the Conservation of Nature (Danmarks Naturfredningsforening), which has increased from 50,000 members in 1975 to 270,000 in 1990. It operates through 210 munici pal level units, regional bodies and at national level. The organization has close connections with the scientific community. Special committees consist ing of researchers on a number of environmental policy areas prepare the organization's viewpoint. Danish legislation since 1937 provides this Society with a special legal standing on issues concerning nature and the environment in that it gives the right to initiate and appeal decisions by local or regional authorities. As a result, most proposals for preservation have originated from the Society for the Conservation of Nature. The Society reviews about 4,000 environmental permits yearly, of which some 2 % are appealed. In addition, it has a leading role in influencing national decision-making in the Ministry of the Environment and in the Ministry of Agriculture, through frequent hear ings and membership in consultative bodies. The Danish ornithological society 5 has also been actively involved in for est policy matters since the mid-1980s. This development coincides with the merging of the two central agencies for forestry and environmental protection. It can be partially explained as a process of increased understanding on the part of the ornithologists that forests, and not only open areas, are also vital bird habitats. From being mainly a scientific society carrying out bird inventories, in the last 20 years the ornithological society has made efforts to influence land use and environmental policy in order to protect bird habitats. Its inventories are now also being used by the environmental protection authorities. For a few years it has had a fairly established relationship with state forestry, but not, so far, with the private sector. The Council for Recreation (Friluftsrädet) is an umbrella organization for some 90 different outdoor recreation organizations, including sports, scouting, tourism and nature studies. Through the Council, these organizations jointly formulate their policies at national and county level. There is a full-time staff 5. Its current membership is around 9,000. From 1960 to 1980 the amount of mem bers increased from some 3,000 to 8,000, but stabilized during the 80s. 368 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries at national level that is formally consulted in legislative and other policy mat ters. At county level, the member organizations cooperate through newly formed "green consulting bodies" to influence land-use planning. These con sultations are still not legalized, but take place informally. 14.4 Norway Forest-environmental legislation and administration The majority of small-forest owners are represented by the Norwegian Forest Owners' Federation (Norges Skogeierforbund), which started up in 1913. Apart from serving its 56,000 members with technical advice, workers and machines, this association also has close contacts with the Ministry of Agri culture in policy matters. Another forest owners' association, the Norwegian Forestry Association (Norsk Skogsbruksforening) represents only the 250 largest private forest owners, and is even more engaged in lobbying. For example, it has advocated a liberal view on pricing policy for hunting and fishing permits and is also opposed to the present legislative hindrances to land acquisition. In Norway, there was a ban in 1916 on any new establishment of private forest companies. Therefore, the largest private forest owners in Norway are only a fraction of those in, for example, Sweden. Agricultural policy in the 19605, which aimed at preserving a flourishing countryside, implied that pri vate ownership of land is reserved for those who actually live on this piece of land. In this issue, the two forest owners' associations are completely divided: the small-forest owners want to keep the rule, while the large-forest owners want to abolish it in favour of bringing market forces to regulate land prices. Crosscutting public and private forest owners is the Norwegian Forestry Society (Det Norske Skogselskap). It was established to promote planting of new forests in the beginning of the century, when large areas were devastated. After the war, it was this Forestry Association that initiated the government forestry agency. The Forestry Society receives public funding for its informa tion activities. More recently, its focus has changed towards informing the general public about the importance and role of forests and forestry. The National Board of Forestry (Skogavdelningen) in charge of govern ment forest policy is located within the Ministry of Agriculture (Land bruksministeriet). It includes a central forestry department within the Ministry, county level agencies as well as local level forest officers throughout the country. Each county (fylke) is divided into districts covering one to two municipalities for which a forest officer works as an advisor to local forest owners. This forestry agency was historically established as the government's ad visory service to private forest owners. It has also had a major task in planning 369 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups and supervising the building of forest roads. In the last decade, its emphasis has changed towards administering government subsidies to various forest op erations, including building of roads, forest planning, harvesting in difficult sites, regeneration, and use of herbicides. The total state subsidies currently amount to approximately 130 million NOK (20 million US dollars) per year. The largest increase was in the year 1985, after which it has stabilized. Be cause of the heavy work load for the forestry agency in distributing these sub sidies, part of the advisory services has been taken over by the two forest owners' associations' staff. They collaborate closely with the state forestry agency at local level, and they also receive government support for this work. The first Norwegian forestry act that required regeneration efforts in order to secure future forest production dates from 1932. It was not until the end of the 60s that increased mechanization and expansion of economic forestry into formerly almost untouched areas required some response in the form of legis lative amendments to include environmental protection aspects. In the Forest ry Act of 1976, the first paragraph was changed stipulating that due consideration must be given to recreation, landscape protection, animal and plant habitats and areas for hunting and fishing. The Forestry Act is designed as a frame law, with almost no detailed rules. There is very little risk of legal punishment if a forest owner does not follow its intentions, and there is no re quirement that he/she announces what forest operations will be undertaken. The tradition to leave the forest owners with "liberty under responsibility" continues to be the principle of Norwegian forest policy. Since 1989, state for estry (Direktoratet for Statens Skoger DSS) in Norway is also regulated by the Forestry Act. Paragraph 17b, which was added to the Forestry Act in 1976, makes it pos sible to regulate special areas of importance to recreation and nature conserva tion interests. Until now, this opportunity has only been used in the Oslomarka area. Another paragraph (19) requires forest owners to give advance notifica tion of certain forest activities when it is assessed by the forestry agency to be necessary for monitoring. It can be applied to selected forest owners or for all forest owners within a district. It has, however, not yet been used to monitor environmental protection. Many new multiple-use regulations have been issued during the last two years by the Ministry of Agriculture. These are special recommendations to re duce negative environmental impacts attached to the provision of state subsi dies for drainage, building of forest roads, and forest planning. For example, in order to receive government subsidies for forest planning 6 , plans must now also mention specific measures on how to include environmental interests, al- 6. The forest planning in Norway is not compulsory, but there is a strong pressure also from the forest owners associations to carry this out. In practice, 80-90 % of private forest owners join. The planning is then used as a basis for giving advice to the forest owners. Although subsidized by the state, the plans are not public, but can only be used by the forestry agency if the owner allows. 370 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries beit not in much detail, and without consultation with different interest groups. The methodology that is used was initially developed by the Norwegian Forest Owners' Federation (Norges Skogeierforbund) in 1988, and has been adopted as a planning package that is now used in all forest planning, both on public and private lands. This is an example of how the forest owners sometimes even precede government regulations, instead of the other way around. Although most of the forestry agency officers' work is in terms of advising and discussing with the forest owners what to do, there are some possibilities for stricter surveillance. Most of this monitoring is done through the subsidy system, where operations must be checked at some point in order for the forest owner to receive financial support. In some areas, up to 90 % of all forest op erations on private lands may receive some form of subsidy, of which 20-25 %of the costs are paid by the state 7 . In addition, permission from the forestry agency is required for use of herbicides in forestry 8 , in which case the county environmental protection agency is also consulted. In practice, use of herbi cides has decreased drastically due to the government's decision to abolish economic subsidies to spraying, and also because of a general negative public opinion towards spreading chemicals in nature. The Ministry of Environmental Protection (Miljöverndepartementet) was established in 1972. At this time, it became impossible for the voluntary or ganizations to cover the increasing demands for nature protection (Hafsten 1977). Nature protection legislation is, however, of much older origin, starting with protection of single species and particular sites in 1910, protection of na tional parks in 1954, and of nature conservation areas (other than national parks) in 1970. The Recreation Act regulates protection of recreational areas by the state or municipalities. The environmental agency does not usually claim to master forestry ques tions, although its branch for Nature Protection and Management (Direktoratet for Naturforvaltning) in Trondheim is increasingly involving itself in forest policy matters. Currently, there is a division of competence between the envi ronmental and forestry agencies in that the former is involved in the planning of protection areas and pollution issues, whereas the latter mainly takes re sponsibility for policy matters on those lands where the primary management goal is timber production. There is also a distinct difference in professional culture between the two agencies. So far, environmental policy has been very centralized in Norway, which has led to tension between national and local interests in many cases where the state has promoted protection and the municipalities exploitation. A program to develop environmental protection work in the municipalities was initiated in 1987 (the MIK 9 programme). The municipalities who participated were 7. Interview with the Director of the County Forestry Agency in Elverum. 8. This permission is only required when the spraying is done from a helicopter. The forest owner can still spray by hand or by tractor without special permission. 371 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups supported by government funds to employ special environmental officers. Evaluation of this pilot programme was positive, and showed increased envi ronmental consciousness in municipal decision-making (Jansen 1991). If the program is extended, it may imply that local multiple-use forestry issues can also be monitored at municipal level by the environmental officers. However, the municipalities' current economic situation is extremely strained, and eco nomic interests are therefore most likely to be prioritized over environmental. There is a tendency in Norwegian politics to increase physical planning, but nobody has yet dared to promote policies that will be incompatible with the municipalities' current economy. The Building and Planning Act (1986) regulates the municipalities' right to control land-use policy within their territory. The municipalities can indi cate in their master plans what major goals different areas would have, includ ing recreational, nature protection or climate protection areas. They must, however, lean on the Forestry Act unless the area is protected by nature con servation legislation. Until recently, the municipalities have refrained from trying to influence forest management, but the question is currently raised in the Ministry for the Environment (which administrates this Act) whether building of forest roads should not be subject to municipal planning. Accord ing to the Planning and Building Act, municipalities can create their own na ture reserves without going through national priority-making, but this possibility has not yet been taken up. Professional culture All of the forest organizations have produced information materials and pol icy statements on multiple-use forestry, mostly from 1987 and onwards 10 . Education of personnel in these issues has taken place to some extent. For example, the forest owners' associations, with support from the forestry agency, have translated and adapted Swedish study material aimed at forest owners". Also, interest is growing among forestry agency staff to follow the direction of their Swedish counterparts in improving their biological and eco logical knowledge 12 . 9. MIK stands for Municipal Environment Protection (Miljövern I Kommunerna). 10. Already in 1978, a special issue of the Forestry Journal "Norsk Skogbruk" was published (volume 24:2) on landscape and nature protection in forestry. Most in formation, however, has been produced in the last few years. 11. This material is entitled "Richer Forest" (Rikare Skog). The Swedish study mate rial has, however, also borrowed ideas from Denmark. 12. In Sweden, the Forestry Agency personnel have undergone intensive education in forest ecology during 1989-91 based on a specially designed study material pro duced by the Swedish National Board of Forestry. This has now spread to the bor der districts in Norway, particularly from Värmland county in Sweden to Hedmark county in Norway. 372 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Although the goal for state forestry changed to include multiple use in 1981, it is only recently that this change is apparent. State forestry has im proved its multiple-use management as a result of the pressure from environ mental groups, especially as a consequence of the debate on montane forests. They started to discuss with environmentalists the values, use and manage ment of the forests, both at central and local levels. A change of attitudes with in the state forest administration has taken place, particularly in the last few years. This is a result of both internal education of the existing staff, and re cruitment of non-foresters (including planners, zoologists, and landscape ar chitects) into new positions. Environmental groups The largest non-profit organizations that are active in influencing multiple use forestry are the Norwegian Tourist Association (Den Norske Turistforen ing), with its 150,000 members and 47 local groups, and the Society for Nature Conservation (Norges Naturvernforbund) with 55,000 members and 144 locally active groups . The Council for Outdoor Recreation (Friluftsrä det) is an umbrella for these and many other related organizations, and repre sents environmental groups in policy matters, particularly relating to public use of lands. Additional environmental organizations which are active at the central forest policy level are Future in Our Hands and World Wildlife Fund. Underway is a strategy for forest policy that will be a joint product between these organizations, with the Society for Nature Conservation taking a lead ing role. A range of multiple-use issues has been debated by environmentalists over the last decades. It started with the size of clearcuttings in urban forests, and continued to include various forest operations, such as use of herbicides and building of forest roads. Another issue is the choice of species in forestry, which particularly affects the Western region. The question is to what extent the former, low-productive, broadleaved forests should be replaced by coni fers. The forestry side, which is promoting fast-growing conifers, has however began to reconsider the reforestation strategy not only as a result of pressure from environmentalists, but also because of economic reasons, since the qual ity of the new species has not been up to expectations. In the mid 19705, forest workers were largely in opposition to the environ mental movement, and it was the forest workers who stopped the protesters by force, for example in the Oslomarka area. Since then, the attitude among forest workers towards multiple-use forest management has changed, and local pro testing groups may now be composed of forest workers and environmentalists in collaboration. 13. In 1990. In addition to these numbers, there are 9,000 young people organized in the youth section (Natur og Ungdom). 373 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups 14.5 Finland Forest-environmental legislation and administration Two Ministries are responsible for multiple-use forestry: the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, under which the Finnish Forest and Park Service as well as the two National Forest Extension Services are located; and the Min istry of the Environment, which is responsible for more general environmen tal protection policy. The Finnish Forest and Park Service manages the state forests, but also nature conservation areas. The National Forest Extension Services, one for the Finnish speaking parts of the country (Metsäkeskus Tapio), and one for the Swedish speaking parts (Skogscentralen Skogskultur), supervise and promote private forestry 14 . In addition, private forestry is administered by 19 District Forestry Boards. The National Forest Extension Services and District Forestry Boards are self-governing bodies, consisting of representatives from forest owners, forest workers, government agencies, and the forest industry. The system with District Forestry Boards was created in 1928, and builds on close collaboration with the forest owners. The private forest owners are organized in some 300 Forest Management Associations at local level. The actual field work of giving advice to the private forest owners is a joint undertaking between these District Forestry Boards and the local Forest Man agement Associations. The Forestry Boards also administer government sub sidies to forest owners, give assistance to planning and carrying out projects concerning, for example, forest road building, drainage, pruning, and regener ation. Finnish forestry legislation is characterized by a long list of special regu lations for different purposes, instead of being collected into a single Forestry Act. For the state forests, there are three recent laws that are of particular in terest here: (1) the Nature Livelihood Act (Naturnäringslagen), which was launched in 1984 to enhance the possibilities of the northern peoples to retain their traditional rights to make a living from natural resources 15 , (2) the Wil derness Act (Ödemarkslagen) from 1991 designates special wilderness areas, and (3) the law on the Finnish Forest and Park Service from 1991 (this law was up-dated in 1993 when the FFPS was turned into a public funding supported 14. The administration of private forestry is presently being reorganized. The amount of organizations is likely to be reduced by 1996. 15. The Act regulates how state owned (particularly forest) land can be sold or leased to people (maximum size 30 hectares) for use in agriculture, fishing, hunting, reindeer husbandry, berry- and mushroom-picking, handicraft making etc. It is administered through the county agricultural agency. Those who have aquired a piece of land according to this Act also have the right to free grazing and gather ing of various plants on state forest lands under the supervision of the forest officer. 374 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Commercial enterprise) which sets as its goals the promotion of nature protec tion and recreation. The Law Concerning Private Forestry (1967) lacks specific goals both for economic forestry and for multiple use. However, the leading rule is that for ests must not be destroyed. The law obliges the owner to regenerate after clear felling and to follow prudent management principles. A forest owner who does not comply with regulations can be prohibited from carrying out any further forest operations for a period of ten to twenty years. The forest owner is also obliged to make an announcement to the District Forestry Board (seven days in advance) before he/she can proceed with a commercial cutting. When re generation cuttings are concerned, the forest owner must present a forest plan that is accepted by the District Forestry Board. Such forest planning does not, however, require environmental protection interests to be included. The Forest Improvement Act of 1987 states that subsidized measures are not allowed to "considerably" affect the environment in a negative way. This came as a result of pressure from environmental interest groups. Government subsidies since 1987 can no longer be used in areas that are designated to be potential protected areas (e.g. for nature protection and recreation) in the fu ture. Drainage operations were then also made subject to special permission from the environmental protection authority. Since the 19605, annual development programs have been drawn up, spec ifying the extent of silvicultural and basic improvement measures. Public funding of forest improvement measures was introduced, however, in the 19205. In the 19605, the MERA 16 programmes intensified subsidies to, for ex ample, forest regeneration, drainage, road building and fertilization. The fund ing level has during recent years been 350-400 million FIM per year (90-100 million US dollars). There are no rules to help the districts prioritize the sub sidies towards environmental concerns, but it is left to the discretion of District Forestry Boards and their officers. In 1985, the Forest 2000 Programme was adopted by the government. This was the first program to include some multiple-use thinking through a special ly designed multiple-use working group. However, multiple use was still re garded as a constraint to timber production (Saastamoinen 1987). The program was revised in 1991-92, since it was built on the fear of shortage in wood sup ply to the industry, and there is now an excess supply of wood because of the economic recession and rapidly increasing growing stock. The revised Forest 2000 Programme pays attention to the environmental consequences of wood production. The Ministry of the Environment was created in 1983. It includes units for environmental protection and nature conservation, physical planning, and housing (the structure of the Ministry will be changed in 1995). Their connec tion to the field goes through the regional planning associations and through 16. MERA is the Finnish abbreviation for FOrest Financing. 375 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups the environmental units of the county administrations. Usually they do not in volve themselves in forestry matters, unless the area is designated for protec tion or recreation. The county administration has the delegated power from the Ministry to settle nature reserves on private lands, if the private owner initiates the case him/herself. The Ministry of the Environment has initiated special protection programs for peatlands, lake shores, herb-rich broadleaved forests, wetlands and small streams and watercourses. Future programs include old growth forests, cultural landscapes and cliffs. There is no formal procedure to check whether forest operations affect such areas. However, the District For estry Board often consults with the County Administration. The environmen tal protection units at the County Administration are responsible for nature reserve areas through the Nature Protection Act. The Building Act, 1981, regulates public planning procedures (the Act is presently being rewritten). The 20 regional planning associations carry out planning for general land use. In practice, they do not differentiate between various priority goals in forestry, but only between "protected" forest areas (through nature protection legislation) and commercial forests. Municipal planning in relation to forestry could become a way to regulate urban forestry towards multiple-use management. The municipalities already have the man date to control cutting of trees within their territory. This has been applied par ticularly in Helsinki and its surrounding municipalities, and may also spread elsewhere. Depending on the specific rules of each municipality, forest oper ations within designated forest areas (private 17 or public) can be prohibited unless special permission is given by the municipality beforehand. In the Hel sinki area, this has increased public participation in the planning of forest op erations. The Building Act is thus formally much more effective than the Forestry Act in regulating multiple use, but can only be used in forests that are particularly important to the municipality residents. Professional culture Very few non-forestry professionals are employed within the forest organiza tions. In the Finnish Forest and Park Service, a change is currently underway due to reorganization that will decrease the staff working on traditional eco nomic forestry, and increase staff working on multiple use, including recrea tion and nature protection. This change is also enhanced by economic rea sons, since net income from commercial forestry is steadily decreasing. 17. In private forests, every single forest operation must be dealt with separately for each individual owner. In practice, the Forest Management Association combines several cases and discusses them with the municipal officers so that the adminis trative work load does not become overwhelming. There are also informal meet ings between forest owners' representatives and municipal officers to achieve common guidelines. 376 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Until now, the District Forestry Boards have not intensively campaigned to increase knowledge of multiple-use forestry among private forest owners. However, during the last few years more written material has been produced than ever before. Education of forestry professionals and forest owners has been strengthened. Recently more comprehensive study material has been pro duced which may increase the level of education within the forest organiza tions. Among private forest owners in Finland, there has been a change of atti tudes since the beginning of the 70s. At that time, 72 % approved of current forest plantation practices, 64 % were convinced that heavy scarification does not spoil nature, and 33 % thought that forest officers do not consider forest owner interests. In all these areas, there has been a clear change towards fa vouring environmental concerns (Ulfvens 1985). By tradition, the state as well as the private forestry professionals have learned to defend themselves against the environmental critique. Their atti tudes have been highly in favour of economic prosperity in the forest sector, in particular the pulp industry. Facilitated by their common professional cul ture, an informal forestry sector quasiboard has been formed that regulates the mutual objectives of the contradictory interests of the basic organizations, in cluding the forest industry, the state forest service, and the labour unions (Kor honen 1991). Such a quasiboard has emerged in Finland, where the role of for est industry is particularly strong, but similar tendencies are also indicated in the other countries. Environmental groups The Finnish Association for Nature Conservation was founded in 1938. It became distinctly critical of forest practices in the 19605. Around that time, nature conservation expanded to include environmental protection. Its current 32,000 members and 204 local associations have remained steady through the 1980 s, while membership greatly expanded in the 19705. The Swedish speak ing sister organization is concentrated in the southern and western districts, with 4,000 members in 22 local groups. The local groups often engage in for estry matters. Public interest in Finland over multiple-use concerns can be partially explained by extensive use of forests for berry- and mushroom picking. In particularly the eastern and northern regions up to 70-90 % of all households are involved in such activities. Environmentalists started by criticizing clearcuttings, use of chemicals, and drainage of peatlands in the 19705. The debate has intensified in the late 1980 s and beginning of the 19905. Forest action groups have been formed in different parts of Finland, and the debate has actualized, at a more general lev el, the question of democratic influence in forest policy. A challenge to forest programming based on ecological, regional and social differentiation within society has been expressed (Lehtinen 1991). Pressure is coming also from in- 377 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups ternational environmental organizations. For example, Finnish forest compa nies' activities abroad, as well as the environmental effects of their methods at home, are scrutinized by international environmentalists. 14.6 Sweden Forest-environmental legislation and administration The National Board of Forestry (Skogsstyrelsen) is the agency responsible for monitoring the Forestry Act, regardless of forest ownership. This is a cen tral government agency with 22 county Forestry Boards (hereafter called For estry Agency) that carry out daily supervision in 141 districts, with district forest officers. The organization employs about 1,500 people. This organiza tion has recently been revised to respond to the new forest policy. The National Board of Forestry is completely separate from the Forest Service (Domänverket) which manages state-owned forest lands. The new forest policy was approved by Parliament in May 1993 and en tered into force in January 1994. It involved major changes in two respects: first, deregulation of previous management rules and prescriptions, and sec ond, increased emphasis on environmental values. The change was justified by the growing recognition that Swedish forestry was contributing largely to the decline of biological diversity (Skogspolitiken inför... 1992). Timber produc tion and maintenance of environmental values as policy goals were given equal priority in the new Forestry Act. The revised forest policy also implied fewer precise regulations, with the hope of thereby enhancing variation in for est management (En ny skogspolitik 1993). Multiple-use aspects were first introduced into the Forestry Act in 1975, and in 1979 these were made more specific and accompanied by a penalty i o clause . Specific requirements and recommendations are spelled out in the Forestry Act for protection of environmental interests in all forest operations. These can be monitored by a notification system for clearcuttings (one month in advance, and two months in sensitive areas). Other types of forest opera tions cannot be monitored except forest road building in environmentally sen sitive areas, and ploughing and drainage of forest land. The latter requires consultation with the environmental section of county administration. Beginning in 1994, all clearcutting notifications must be accompanied by a brief EIA (environmental impact assessment), stating what special environ- 18. The legal penalty is only valid if the Forestry Agency has issued specific pre scriptions for each forest operation. The forest owner cannot be punished if such prescriptions were not made beforehand. Only the Forestry Agency is allowed to sue the forest owner, which means that the public can only informally try to con vince the Forestry Agency to prescribe what measures are necessary in order to fulfil multiple-use interests. 378 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 14.3 Protection of broadleaved trees at forest clearcuttings is one of the environmental measures contained in the Swedish Forestry Act of 1979. Evaluations have shown, however, that single trees are more often saved for aesthetic rather than pure floristic and faunistic rea sons. Here, an aspen tree has been felled. Photo: K. Eckerberg. mental measures will be taken within the planned clearcut area. This proce dure increases the possibility for forest agency officers to give more specific advise on environmental issues to forest owners. Despite the ambiguous formulation of the environmental protection re quirements, they have functioned to increase the awareness of such issues, par ticularly among forestry professionals. They also play a role in legitimizing the work by both the environmental and forest authorities towards increased environmental protection measures. Several studies of the extent to which these regulations are implemented in forestry practice show that average com pliance is, however, not satisfactory. Evaluations of their implementation re veal figures of around half (Eckerberg 1990) or two thirds (Tagen hänsyn... 1991) of what is desired 19 . Aesthetic values are protected to a larger extent than purely faunistic/floristic, and more environmental protection measures are achieved in areas where recreational pressure is high (Figure 14.3). The use of highly mechanized equipment proved to be the most significant reason for the low degree of environmental protection measures (Eckerberg 1990). 19. The first follow-up of the Forestry Act regulations for multiple use from the years 1981-84 (Eckerberg 1990) shows approximately the same result as the next fol low-up 1989-90 (Tagen hänsyn... 1991). The differences between the two evalua tions can largely be ascribed to different methodologies in measuring successful outcome. 379 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups Eight regional Forest Owners' Associations (Skogsägarföreningar) assist private forest owners in forest management and coordinate timber trade. Their 87,000 members represent almost half of the total land area owned by private individuals. There is also the Forestry Society (Skogssällskapet), a private or ganization offering forest management services to municipalities, foundations and private forest owners. The Swedish Forestry Association (Sveriges Skogs värdsförbund) is a non-profit organization for information and education, geared towards sustainable use of forests. It collaborates with private forestry as well as with environmentalists in multiple-use related issues. Since 1983, all forest owners were required by the Forestry Act to prepare a management plan but obligatory planning was abolished in the new forest policy of 1994. The state subsidized this planning, since it combined it with forest inventory carried out by the Forestry Agency. The plans are not legally binding, but often used as a basis for advice and follow-up by the Forestry 90 Agency, and they are in principle public documents . Since the mid-1980s, these plans have to some extent included environmental information, but the quality of this information varies at the discretion of the planner concerned. If the Forestry Agency, the environmental agency, or the municipality considers the forest area to be of particular interest, the plan may be extended by public funding to put more emphasis on inventories and management strategies to protect environmental aspects. State subsidies to forestry have been justified to increase wood production and improve regional policy, with the aim of creating jobs in regions with un employment. The subsidies amounted to around 240 million SEK (40 million US dollars) annually during the 1980 s, but have decreased to 90 million in 1992/93, and to 45 million in 1993/94. This includes regeneration measures, building of forest roads, drainage of wetlands, forest planning, and forest im provement measures for low-productive forests. More recently, subsidies have also been launched by the agriculture agency for afforestation of margin al agricultural lands. Many of these subsidies have been intensely criticized by environmentalists, who claim that they counteract environmental protection. This critique, in addition to economists' evaluations showing little or some times even negative effects of the subsidies (Bängman 1990), has influenced the government to cut down the most controversial grants. Special inventories and conservation programs have been launched by the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Naturvärdsverket) over the years, including wetlands, virgin forests, montane forests, and marginal agricultural lands. Some of these inventories have been conducted in collaboration with the National Board of Forestry, such as for virgin and mountain forests. The purpose has been to increase knowledge about environmental values for plan ning purposes. The National Board of Forestry has recently begun to inventory 20. Although the plans are formally open to the public, in practice they are not designed in a way that non-professionals could make much use of them, espe cially in relation to multiple use. 380 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries wet forests and key habitats for threatened species. New regulations to protect small-size, threatened biotopes has been introduced in the Nature Conservan cy Act in 1993, which may affect the way nature conservation measures will further be handled in forestry. Legislation to protect broadleaved deciduous forest stands was introduced in 1974 for beech forests (Bokskogslagen), and for other deciduous trees in cluding oak and ash in 1984 (Ädellövskogslagen), since these southern forests had drastically diminished. Felling and regeneration of such stands comprising at least 50 % of the regulated species must be preceded by special permission. The Building and Planning Act, 1986, regulates the municipalities' right to plan their own territory, which may also include forest lands that are of partic ular local importance. In such areas, they have the right to be consulted by the environmental and forest authorities at county level. The municipalities are to prioritize land-use management goals according to their political wishes, but are dependent on the county-level authorities to enforce such goals. Since 1987, the municipalities have had the delegated right from the county admin istration to set up nature reserves, but this opportunity has not yet been notably used because of the current economic situation. Professional culture The County Forestry Boards were initially created at the regional level in 1905, and became state agencies only in 1980. This explains partially why the Forestry Agency officers tend to advocate the interests of the collective forest sector. Furthermore, the officers have a split role in relation to the forest own -91 ers; they base their services to a large extent on commercial activities , and are thus dependent on the good-will of the forest owners. At the same time it is their obligation to enforce the Forestry Act. In practice, legal sanctions are rarely used due to two major reasons: the Forestry Act regulations on multiple use are formulated as a frame-law, which leaves considerable room for different interpretations, and the Forestry Agen cy is therefore reluctant to resort to court action (Tagen hänsyn... 1991). Fur thermore, the Forestry Agency traditionally has a friendly, personal relationship with the forest owners. The first multiple-use ideas that penetrated into forest administration in the mid-1970s were inspired by landscape protection and aesthetic values geared to increase recreational experience from forests. In the beginning of the 1980 s, this changed into more ecological thinking, motivated by up-to-date scientific data, in the form of long lists of threatened species in Swedish for ests. Consequently, the Forestry Agency has campaigned along the same lines: first in landscape protection, then faunistic, floristic and ecological values. On 21. They administer some 20 major forest nurseries distributed throughout the coun try and carry out different services to the forest owner on a commercial basis. 381 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups its way is a campaign to increase cultural awareness, i.e. protection of artifacts and cultural remnants in the forests. The campaigns have been quite impres sive in terms of the number of people within the forest sector attending courses and excursions. In addition, comprehensive educational materials have been produced and widely distributed. During 1991-92, more than 60,000 forest owners, forest workers and entrepreneurs have been educated with the aid of a specially designed study material "A Richer Forest". The Forest Service as well as the private forest companies have throughout the 1980 s educated their personnel in ecology and environmental protection. A large number of colourful brochures and materials has been produced, and new management procedures are being launched in order to increase the amount of multiple-use considerations. This is a long-time effort, since pre vious clashes with environmentalists, particularly in the 1960 s and 19705, have left deep scars on their public image. Starting at the end of the 1980 s, the formerly extremely homogeneous professional staff of foresters has gradually widened out to also include specialists in environmental protection, such as ecologists. Such a development began within the Forestry Agency and spread to the state and private forest companies. Still, however, the professional cul ture of both the forest owners and their controlling agency can be character ized in terms of a common understanding and hesitation to accept public and "outside" demands for environmental measures that are not within their pro fessional code of ethics. Environmental groups Forestry is a major political issue for many of the environmental organiza tions in Sweden. Their intensive campaign against large clearcuttings and the use of herbicides in the 19705, and its coverage in mass media was probably the main reason for amendments in the legislation. The Swedish Society for Nature Protection (Svenska Naturskyddsföreningen) is the largest and the most established organization, and has grown rapidly 22 to over 200,000 members by 1991. Many of its 241 local groups are carrying out inventories, and are involved in protecting environmental interests in forestry. The Swed ish Ornithological Society actively protects bird habitats in the forests. The hunting associations (with 170,000 members) are active in wildlife protec tion, and a number of "outdoor life" and homestead societies often engage in forest management issues when forestry activities affect recreational and social interests in their neighbouring forests. In the 1980 s, several additional environmental action groups were formed to defend multiple-use aspects in forestry. These include the movement for the protection of montane forests (FURA), which was most active in the second 22. In 1970 there were 40,000 members, which grew to 68,000 until 1980. From 1989 the growth has stabilized. 382 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries half of the 1980 s during the political discussions on the extent to which the state should protect montane forests. Local groups have also been formed to carry out inventories of threatened species. The results of these inventories are used in negotiations with forest owners and government authories. A group called "One Step Ahead" within the Society for Nature Protection is active in the very north. The group has, during the last two years, inventoried large for est areas and discovered considerable numbers of rare and threatened forest dependent species that were previously unknown, both within and outside of nature reserves. International cooperation to protect boreal forests was initiat ed in 1992 at a large conference in Jokkmokk in northern Sweden by founding a new organization, Taiga Rescue Network, which involves non-governmen tal organizations and researchers. A comparison of the environmental debate from the 1960-70s with that of the 1980 s and onwards shows a major change in attitudes and strategy of both the environmental groups and the forest sector (Löf 1993). Both sides are now better informed of the actual environmental situation, and discussions are be coming increasingly constructive. For example, environmentalist standpoints nowadays frequently appear in forest periodicals, and collaborative excursions and courses have increased. 14.7 Comparison and conclusions The availability of forests varies greatly for the four countries, and can be compared by forest area per capita: Finland 4.16 hectares, Sweden 2.86, Nor way 1.67, and Denmark 0.1 (Börset 1986). Naturally, there is more pressure from different public interests when the accessible forest area is small. But it is also a matter of how the forests have been managed, and to what extent they can offer a range of values and opportunities for recreation, diversified ecosystems, utilization of resources, and symbolic features. The combination of access and the environmental status of existing forests in these countries make up the preconditions for multiple-use conflicts. In Finland, Sweden and Norway the montane forests are of particular im portance to multiple use, and have historically more or less been left outside of commercial forestry. Particularly in the 1970 and 1980 s, pressure on these forests increased for wood production, thus creating conflicts between exploi tation and protection. Old-growth forests in southern areas were also affected by this conflict. Since most of these forests are owned by the state, environ mentalists have felt that they should be managed for the public good to a larger extent than forests which are not state-owned. It has taken the state forestry a long time to react to these demands. In Denmark, as a contrast, the state forests are located close to the more inhabited areas. State forestry in Denmark has, hence, been forced to incorporate various public interests into their manage ment at a much earlier stage. 383 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups Starting in the early 19605, forestry in all of the Nordic countries became j n more and more mechanized , and at the same time the size of the forest in dustry increased, particularly in Finland and Sweden (Figure 14.4). The gov ernments initiated a series of programs to meet the increasing demand for timber for the industry, culminating in the 19705. The programs promoted for estry practices that were seriously criticized by the growing environmental movement: for example, large-scale clearcuttings, the use of herbicides, drainage of peatlands to grow new forests, and fertilization. In addition, eco nomic subsidies were introduced to stimulate faster growth and more intensive management of forests. Many of these measures counteracted environmental concerns. Both legislative and economic instruments were used to force forest owners towards more commercial management. The new interventionist state policy aimed primarily at private forest owners was supported by the govern ments in collaboration with the labour unions and industry. The reaction from the general public on how the new forest practices af fected the environment - to a large extent channeled through the new environ mental movement - grew at the end of the 19605, and continues to appear frequently in mass media reports. All four Nordic governments have respond ed by launching forest-environmental legislation. These include legislative amendments as well as adjustments to the above mentioned government sub sidies. Starting in Norway, in 1973, the management goals for the Oslomarka area were altered to include multiple-use aspects. At almost the same point of time (in 1975 and 1976), the Swedish and the Norwegian Forestry Acts were amended, and multiple use was mentioned as worthy of consideration, al though wood production continued to be the main goal. General multiple-use goals are today incorporated into forestry legislation to some extent in all the Nordic countries, but there are no or few possibilities of enforcing them. Spe cial regulations on how state subsidies to forestry must not negatively affect environmental protection have been issued in Norway and Finland, and all the controversial forestry subsidies have been abolished in Sweden and Norway. The magnitude of subsidies to measures that are doubtful from a multiple-use perspective has thus decreased drastically. The difference in the 1990 s is that 23. Norway and Denmark are the least mechanized - although the degree of mechani zation in Norway has increased from 23 % in 1985 to 44 % in 1989. Also in Den mark, in the last two years the mechanization in conifer forests and in broadleaved thinnings has grown from almost zero to 40 % in 1991. The goal for the state forests is set to 80 % mechanized in 1995, excluding old beech and oak forest. The private forestry is undergoing the same change of technology. In Fin land, the figure is over 60 % and is expected to increase further to some 80 %. In Sweden, in 1990 more than 80 % of clearcuttings are fully mechanized and over 50 % of thinnings. According to Eckerberg (1990), the higher the degree of mechanization in forest clear-cuttings the less environmental features are pro tected. The above tendencies may therefore lead to less multiple-use concerns in forestry practice in all of the Nordic countries. However, there is also an evolu tion of "softer" technology such as small and flexible machines with less ground pressure that may counteract this development. 384 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 14.4 The size of clearcuttings increased drastically in the 19605. This was due to mechanization of forest operations and was one of the first environmental issues that led to clashes between environmentalists and foresters, especially in Sweden and Finland. Photo: K. EckerbEckerberg. a larger proportion of government subsidies are paid for afforestation of mar ginal agricultural lands. This may affect biological diversity in a negative way, as well as aesthetic and recreational values. Through inventories and environ mental planning, priorities for multiple-use goals could be made by the rele vant environmental and agriculture authorities. However, recent changes in Nordic countries' forest policy towards sustainable management, which in cludes genuine environmental concerns for biodiversity, social, recreational and historic values, still remain to be evaluated in practical terms. Private forests are predominant in all the Nordic countries, and state inter vention to influence the private forest owners' forest management - if it goes against the public good - are therefore crucial. Traditionally, the private forest owners have created and maintained their own organizations for advisory and operational services in forestry. These organizations are still closely linked with the government administrations responsible for carrying out forest poli cy. Through personal and commercial ties, controlling agencies are in the hands of private forest owners. Respect for private property rights is firmly rooted among forestry administrators, and their steering strategy is based on mutual understanding and soft methods such as information and persuasion. Although the formal set-up of the controlling agency differs in the Nordic countries - pure state agency in Sweden and Norway -4 , and based primarily on private, state-funded organizations in the other countries - in practice this 385 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups difference is not important. The Swedish forestry agency has so far also had a much more rigid and detailed legislation to implement, but in practice they have seldom made use of the possibilities for punishment by the law. Environmental legislation and environmental authorities have a different approach. Their role is to protect, and in doing so they must compensate the forest owners for the loss of land. Forest land acquisition is expensive, and therefore most nature reserves and national parks have been created on low productive and remote areas, and primarily on state land. In all four countries, there is now increasing discussion of how the more valuable private forest lands can be protected, including remaining old-growth forests and broad leaved forests in the middle and southern parts of Finland, Norway and Swe den, and the small patches that are left of such forests in Denmark. Current state budgets for preservation of nature are not sufficient to cover such protec tion. The environmental authorities are reluctant to interfere through applying nature conservation legislation, since there is little chance that they will be able to purchase them in the foreseeable future. There is a fundamental difference in professional values between foresters (forest workers, forest administrators, supervisors, directors, etc.) and envi ronmentalists. Foresters regard multiple use in forestry mostly from an eco nomic perspective, whereas environmentalists take an ecological standpoint. Hence, perception of the "problems" in forestry is different depending on the professional values, although they tend to coincide more today than in the be ginning of the multiple-use forestry debate in the early 19705. Both, however, demand that society should interfere when markets fail. 14.8 Perspectives for the future The political changes and liberal ideology which are sweeping over all Nor dic countries in the 1990 s cannot fail to also affect the forestry sector. In all these countries, there is a recent tendency towards increased discretion in the policy process, both in terms of decentralization of formal policy decisions, deregulation, and allowing market forces into the multiple-use forestry related arena. There are political discussions in all these countries on privati zation of state forests, but so far selling off of state land has only been mar ginal. The decline of agriculture, and the relative decline of timber value in rela tion to public interests in recreation and nature conservation is common to all these countries. This favours development of multiple-use management with in the forest sector for purely economic reasons. Afforestation of marginal ag- 24. Since 1980, the Swedish forest agency was included into state administration, but its heritage comes from the forest owners (see earlier description). In Norway, the state forestry agency works in close collaboration with the private forest associa tions. 386 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries ricultural lands has already become an environmental issue. It relates both to cultural values and to the preservation of threatened species, since many of these species are dependent on such marginal areas. The actual incorporation of environmental values into the administration depends heavily on the value perceptions and priorities of the society and its leadership. Unfortunately, some of these alterations in human attitude come about only through environmental crises, or through strong pressures from an environmentally sensitive public. There is a built-in resistance to actually make such changes in the administration that could address the complex nature of environmental problems (Henning & Mangun 1989). This includes a reluc tance by forest professionals, who dominate this sector, to hand over respon sibility for surveillance of forests to non-foresters, such as biologists and public planners. As earlier mentioned, the set-up of the Danish administration as a joint agency for forestry and environmental protection has helped the Danish forestry sector towards more integrated thinking within this policy are na. Participation by the public in forest-environmental policy-making at all levels is still at its infancy in these countries. There are few or no formal struc tures to permit such open policies in the forest planning system. Recent pilot efforts by some forest companies may change this picture, if the regional plan ning units and the municipalities dare to take up the challenge. This has mostly happened in the most densely populated towns. Judging from the current strained economic realities of most Nordic municipalities, their possibilities of paying economic compensation to conserve natural areas will be very limited in the near future. Nevertheless, the forest sector, with its specific professional culture and close internal ties, is gradually responding to multiple-use thinking in forest management. This development can be ascribed both to an increased acknowl edgement by forestry professionals of the actual economic profitability of managing forests in an ecologically sustainable manner , and to information and education campaigns to increase the forest professionals' and forest own ers' awareness in multiple use of forests, including preservational and recrea tional interests. There is still, however, little substantial evidence that the forest professionals' frequent rhetoric about the importance of such values has actually changed their behaviour. Short-term economic realities of the forest owner continue to be the driving force behind their choice of forest manage ment systems. Nordic foresters' professional culture is, however, not unique. Foresters in other countries are also known to suppress conflicts and reject so- 25. For example, the forest sector itself has taken up the criticism against large-scale stereotyped management, and recently introduced the concept of "forest site adaption" in all kinds of forest operations, including choice of species and meth ods of harvesting and scarification according to particular biological conditions at micro level. 387 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups cial values which are not easily quantifiable in economic terms (Koch & Kennedy 1991). Scandinavian foresters were forced to entertain multiple use of forests in their thinking, due to the critique from the environmental movement in the late 1960 s and early 19705. From being dominated by people who largely enjoyed nature in a passive way, nature conservation societies in the Nordic countries began in the 1970 s to more actively demand societal measures to preserve nat ural ecosystems and consider ecological principles in economic activities. The domination of foresters in the nature conservation movement waned, and a new generation of young activists and ecologically educated university stu dents took up the initiative (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). In short, the major pressures for more multiple-use concerns came from the local traditional natural resource management culture (especially the Sami population in the northern Scandinavia), from ecologists (including scientists), and from various recreational interests. On the other side, the forest owners may have different management goals, depending on whether and to which ex tent they are economically dependent on their resource, and whether they are public or private. An analysis of multiple-use forest policy in the Nordic countries suggests that the development of multiple-use legislation has been spurred largely by pressure from the environmental groups, which have been particularly strong in Sweden and Denmark. Their role is changing now when multiple-use con cerns have been introduced into forestry and land use planning legislation. Scrutinizing the forest and environmental agencies' implementation and mon itoring of new legislation is one of the more important roles of environmental groups. In Denmark, the Society for Conservation of Nature has played an im portant role in appealing permits given by county councils for development within areas of concern for environmental protection, thus putting pressure on public agencies to implement environmental policy. In all the Nordic coun tries, environmental organizations are becoming more and more specialized, and are to a larger extent than before backed up by the scientific community in their criticism of current forest practices. This has led to increased mutual understanding between the forest sector and the environmentalists. Still, there are several forest policy conflicts that remain unsolved because they are based on different ideological approaches to commercial use and protection of natu ral resources. The question of who pays for multiple-use forestry will also continue to be on the political agenda. Denmark is the only one of these countries which is a member of the Eu ropean Union (EU). Sweden and Finland are joining in 1995, while Norway will remain outside. There may be several ways that the membership could in fluence multiple-use forest policy. First, it can be expected that more Europe ans will discover the natural beauty of the Nordic countries, and be attracted by the Right of Public Access to land, in particular to forest land. This will im ply that more people will be wandering around on private lands, and there will 388 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries be much greater pressure for recreational adaptations of forest management. In Denmark, this is already happening, and private forest owners are starting to complain about commonly used trails through their property. A similar sit uation can be discerned in Sweden, with increasing numbers of berry pickers coming from other parts of Europe. There will be a great need for multilingual information on the rights and duties connected to the Right of Public Access. Another effect of the membership of the EU is that its environmental pro tection policy will have to be followed by all member states. For example, the directive on protection of wild birds states that 111 different bird habitats in Denmark, of which around 13 are within forests, must be protected from major changes (E.C. directive, 2 April, 1979). This is a clear directive, that can be appealed in court if not followed. It is different in character from voluntary in ternational agreements, such as the Wetland Convention. Both international agreements and non-governmental organizations will most likely put increased pressure on forestry in the Nordic countries to be come more multiple use oriented. Already, the European environmental move ment has managed to influence Scandinavian forest companies to take environment seriously. The threat is that otherwise there will be no market for Scandinavian forest products. Eco-labelling has been introduced by some of the forest companies as a response to the consumers' demands for "green" products, and it is likely that this will be further developed and followed by the forest industry as a whole. Influence from the international market and envi ronmental movement thus appears to be more decisive for the implementation of multiple-use goals than national policy has been. Despite the forest sectors' predominance in current forest policy, a major change not only in rhetoric and stated policy goals but also in management practices is probably inevitable. In all of the countries, there is a fear on the part of the forest authorities that if they do not live up to the expectations of the environmentalists, and if the for estry sector is not capable of acting now, with its current freedom, new and more rigid regulations will follow. The other future alternative, which is per haps inevitable, is that non-foresters will take over more decision-making power within this policy field. References Andersson, B. & Hultman, S.-G. 1980. Skogens värden: skogsbrukets roll. (The val ues of forests: the role of forestry.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet och LTS För lag, Kristianstad. 233 pp. (In Swedish.) Bängman, G. 1990. Skogspolitiska styrmedel och deras effekter: en litteraturstudie. (The administrative tools of forest policy: a literature survey.) Sveriges lant bruksuniversitet, Institutionen för skogsekonomi, Arbetsrapport 122. (In Swedish.) 389 Multiple-use forestry administration, legislation and interest groups Bevarande av faunans och florans mängfald vid skogsbruk. (Preserving the diversity of fauna and flora in forestry.) 1991. Arbetsrapport. Skogsstyrelsen, Jönköping. (In Swedish.) Biologisk mängfald. (Biological diversity.) 1990. Naturskyddsföreningen, Ärsbok 1990, ärgäng 81, Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Borset, O. 1986. Skogskjotsel 11. Skogskjotselens teknikk. (Silviculture 11. Tech niques of silviculture.) Landbruksforlaget, Oslo. 455 pp. (In Norwegian.) Darpö, J. 1991. Liv i skogen: reformbehov och förslag till rättsliga förändringar för naturvärdshänsyn i skogen. (Life in forest: the need of reforms and a proposi tion for juridical changes to improve nature protection in forests.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för skogsekonomi, Arbetsrapport 132. (In Swedish.) Eckerberg, K. 1990. Environmental protection in Swedish forestry. Avebury Studies in Green Research, Aldershot. 179 pp. En fremtidig skovpolitik. (Future forest policy.) 1986. Landbrugsministeriet, Betasn kning nr. 1090. Kobenhavn. 125 pp. (In Danish.) En ny skogspolitik. (New forest policy.) 1993. Parliamentary Standing Committee on Agriculture, 1992/93: JOUIS, Stockholm. (In Swedish.) Flersidig skogbruk: skogbrukets forhold til naturmiljo og friluftsliv. (Multiple-use forestry: the relationship of forestry with natural environment and outdoor recreation.) 1989. Norges offentlige utredninger, NOU 1989:10. 139 pp. (In Norwegian.) Hafsten, U. 1977. Naturvernets ärhundrede: fra pionerinnsats til regjeringsposisjon, fra punktfredning til nasjonalpark. (A decade of nature protection: from pio neering to the government, from saving small pieces of land to national parks.) Oslo. (In Norwegian.) Helles, F., Jensen, S.F. & Risvand, J. 1984. Den danske skovsektors samfundsmses sige betydning. (The socioeconomic importance of Danish forestry sector.) DSR forlag, Kobenhavn. (In Danish.) Henning, D.H. & Mangun, W.R. 1989. Managing the environmental crisis: incorpo rating competing values in natural resource administration. Duke University Press, Durham and London. Hultcrantz, L. & Wibe, S. 1991. Skogspolitik för ett nytt sekel. (Forest Policy for the new century.) Finansdepartementet, Ds 1991:31. (In Swedish.) Jansen, A.-I. 1991. Reform og resultater: evaluering av forsoksprogrammet miljovern i kommunene. (Reform and results: the evaluation of an exprimen tal program of environmental protection in communities.) NORAS, Oslo. (In Norwegian.) Koch, N.E. & Kennedy, J.J. 1991. Multiple-use forestry for social values. Ambio 20(7): 330-333. Korhonen, M. 1991. Emergence and transformation of a sectoral quasiboard: a case of the Finnish forestry sector. Second draft. Prepared for the 10th European group for organizational studies colloquium "Societal change between market and organisation", Vienna, July 15-17, 1991. Helsinki School of Business Economics, Helsinki. Koskinen, T. 1985. Finland: a forest sector society? Sociological approaches, conclu sions and challenges. In: Lilja, K., Räsänen, K. & Tainio, R. (Eds). Problems 390 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries in the redescription of business enterprises. Helsinki School of Economics Studies, B-73: 45-52. Kristiansen, L. 1988. Skov-info. Om informationspolitik og formidling til den pri vate skovejer. 3 dels projekt. (Forest -info. Information policy and mediation for the private forest owner. 3 parts project.) Skovbrugsinstituttet, Kgl. Veter inasr- og Landbohojskole, Kobenhavn. (In Danish.) Lehtinen, A. 1991. Northern natures: a study of the forest question emerging within the timber-line conflict in Finland. Fennia 169(1): 57-169. Löf, M. 1993. Relationen mellan miljörörelsen och skogsbolagen 1970-1993. (The relations between the environmental movement and forest companies 1970- 1993.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen för skogsekonomi, Arbet srapport 176. 60 pp. (In Swedish.) Report of the Finnish Commission on Environment and Development. 1989. Minis try of the Environment, Commission Report 1989:9. Reunala, A. 1987. Skogen och finländarna. (Forests and Finns.) Historisk tidskrift för Finland 3: 374-396. (In Swedish.) Also available in English: Reunala, A. 1987. The forest and the Finns. In: Engman, M. & Kirby, D. (eds.). Finland: people, nation, state. Hurst, London, p. 38-56. Reunala, A. & Heikinheimo, M. 1987. Taistelu metsistä: voimaperäinen metsätalous Suomessa ja muissa maissa. (The fight for the forests: intensive forestry in Finland and other countries.) Kirjayhtymä, Helsinki. 188 pp. (In Finnish.) Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). 1984. Multi ple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalls Fenniae 120. 142 pp. Saastamoinen, O. 1987. Multiple use and the Forest 2000 Programme. Scandinavian Forest Economics 29: 39-47. Skogspolitiken inför 2000-talet: huvudbetänkande av 1990 ärs skogspolitiska köm mitte. (Forest policy for the 21st century: main report of the 1990 forest policy committee.) Jordbruksdepartementet, Statens offentliga utredningar, SOU 1992: 76. 343 pp. (In Swedish.) Tagen hänsyn vid slutavverkningar 1989-91. (Considerations in final fellings 1989 91.) 1991. Skogsstyrelsen, Meddelande nr 4. (In Swedish.) Ulfvens, J. 1985. Kris i skogen. (Crisis in forests.) Miljöförlaget, Helsingfors. 127 pp. (In Swedish.) 391 Planning of multiple-use forestry 15 Planning of multiple-use forestry Jyrki Kangas 1 Lene Kristiansen2 Abstract Multiple-use planning of forest resources is needed in order to facilitate the best possible choice, or at least an approvable mix of several inputs and out puts in an extremely complex production process. Multiple-use planning is always multi-objective. In any comparison of decision alternatives, the goals and objectives placed on the utilization of the forestry production process have to be known. Decision alternatives should be evaluated with respect to each objective, and, furthermore, with respect to overall priority. Recently, multiple-use planning methods have vigorously been developed in the Nor dic countries - especially numerical optimization procedures and choice models for both strategic and tactic multiple-use planning. However, these methods have not yet gained general approval in forestry practice; practical multiple-use planning is still mainly based on more or less descriptive approaches. Nowadays, the most crucial problem in applying analytical mul tiple-use planning approaches is the lack of production functions, or other models which could be used to measure and evaluate different products and benefits - quantitative as well as qualitative ones - not only at national or regional but also at forest holding and tree stand level. Keywords: forest planning, public participation, integrated forestry, decision analysis, landscape planning, multi-objective optimization. 1 Finnish Forest Research Institute Joensuu Research Station RO.Box 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland 2 Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute Skovbrynet 16, DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark 392 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 15.1 Introduction Forestry is called multiple use of forest resources when several goods and services are produced and utilized. Planning of multiple-use forestry is, thus, multi-objective forest planning. In the Nordic countries, during the last few decades, planning of managed forests has mainly been planning for wood production only. Timber manage ment planning is, however, only a part of forest planning. Considerable parts of forest planning include, for example, design of forest landscape, wildlife management planning, recreation management planning, and consideration of biological diversity. In multiple-use planning of forest resources, all parts are integrated into one planning process. That is why multiple-use forest planning has also been called integrated forest management planning (e.g. Kreutzwiser & Wright 1990). According to both empirical and theoretical investigations, objectives oth er than those based solely on wood production are carrying more and more weight in forestry decision-making. Nowadays, not only the public but also private forest landowners, both industrial and non-industrial ones, value mul tiple-use aspects of forests (e.g. Hyberg & Holthausen 1989, Lönnstedt 1989, Karppinen & Hänninen 1990, Kreutzwiser & Wright 1990). Recently, much attention has been paid to biological diversity in particular and how it can be taken into account in forest planning (e.g. Hunter 1990, Millar et al. 1990, Probst & Crow 1991, Kangas & Kuusipalo 1993). Public pressure on multiple use of forests has increased around the world, and not least in the Nordic countries. Due to the general consciousness of the use and management of forests, public participation in forest planning is often called for. In Nordic countries, this holds true in particular for forests owned by the state. In this chapter, multiple-use planning of forest resources is discussed, and some examples of attempts to develop multiple-use planning methods in the Nordic countries are briefly presented. Consideration of planning processes is limited to planning within the forestry sector only. For example, other land use planning systems in the respective countries, such as municipal and re gional planning, are not examined. 15.2 Planning facilitates decision-making The aim of forest planning, as of any planning process, is to provide support to decision-making so that, in the decision making process, the best possible pro duction program leading to an efficient mix of outputs can be chosen. The product of forest planning is usually a forest plan: a recommendation of treat ment schedules for forest stands located in the area in question, and some al ternative plans with information on impacts of implementing the plans. In this 393 Planning of multiple-use forestry chapter, planning is considered from the point of view of strategic and tactic planning, mostly at a forest area or a forest holding level. A rational decision maker chooses the decision alternative which maximizes his or her expect ed utility, determined on the basis of the information available to him or her, related to the decision alterna tives. Utility is influenced by all at tributes which have value to the de cision maker (for example, net in come from timber production, na ture conservation considerations, scenic beauty, etc.); it is a measure of subjective desirability. The best plan is the one which produces the greatest utility when realized. For choosing the best plan, per fect knowledge is required of both the decision alternatives available, and information on the consequenc es associated with these alterna tives, as well as of the objectives and preferences of the decision maker (.Fig ure 15.1). Furthermore, decision alternatives have to be evaluated with respect to each objective, and also with respect to overall utility. Because preferences of decision makers vary from one person to another, and from one decision sit uation to another, components of utility, and their weightings, have to be de termined case by case. Figure 15.1 The decision basis (Bradshaw & Boose Boose 1990). Each part of the decision basis should be sound in order to facilitate the best choicechoice. A planning process includes, at least, the following phases: 1) Structuring the decision problem. 2) Describing the decision alternatives. 3) Determining objectives and preferences of decision makers. 4) Assessing possible impacts of each decision alternative. 5) Evaluating decision alternatives with respect to each objective. 6) Evaluating and comparing decision alternatives with respect to overall util ity. 7) Compiling a plan. The part of the planning process which precedes the compilation of a plan is often called decision analysis (e.g. Keeney 1982). Its aim is to lend support to decision making in decision problems which are too complex for the intui tive use of common sense. Kangas et ai. (1992) broke down forestry decision analysis into five main phases from the point of view of practical applications: 394 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 1) Identification and structuring the decision problem. 2) Analysis of interests, including the preferences of the decision maker as well as those of the interest groups or citizens concerned. 3) Detailed description of the forest (e.g. forest inventory). 4) Examination of the production possibilities, and generation of the decision alternatives by applying, for example, simulation calculations. 5) Evaluation and comparison of the decision alternatives on the basis of phas es (2), (3), and (4). If a reliable and versatile enough decision support has been obtained in the de cision analysis, a forest plan can be compiled. In multiple-use forestry, different outputs - goods, services, and other benefits - are consciously produced in the same production process. Different goods and values are usually not measurable or otherwise expressable, accu rately enough, in the same units. However, all relevant factors which have an effect on utility have somehow to be made commensurable. If this is not done, comparison of decision alternatives with respect to overall priority is difficult, if not impossible. The importance of different outputs vary from one planning situation to another, and the choice of a forest plan in a multi-objective case is sensitive to changes in the importance ratios of outputs and objectives. Objectives and their importance, and, thus, the optimal choice, depend on the standpoint from which the planning problem is viewed: weighting schema may be different from a global than from a national point of view - to say nothing about a pri vate landowner's or citizen's opinions. The best production program can only occasionally be found without clarifying the objectives and their weights, and taking them carefully into account in planning. Decision analysis in planning of multiple-use forestry is more complicat ed than in planning of single-use forestry. Besides the capacity of the human brain, numerical analysis is often needed in decision analysis of complex plan ning processes. Numerical calculations and computerized planning systems have been found necessary in timber management planning. It is obvious that numerical approaches are also needed in solving multiple-use planning prob lems having timber production as one output among others; they are usually far more complex tasks than timber management planning processes alone. When quantitative objectives and units are considered, a multiple-use planning problem can be solved by applying the approaches of mathematical programming, such as goal programming or other multi-objective linear pro gramming approaches (e.g. Kilkki 1985, Mendoza et al. 1987, Gong 1992, Kangas & Pukkala 1992). Often, however, multiple-use values are qualitative by their very nature, and their quantification is difficult - sometimes even im possible - in such a way that each decision alternative could be evaluated re liably enough with respect to them. Some modern planning techniques, for example the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), can deal with qualitative ob- 395 Planning of multiple-use forestry jectives without converting them into absolute measures (Saaty 1980, Kangas 1992 a). Recently, much attention has also been paid to quantification of qualitative benefits of forests in monetary terms (e.g. Mattsson 1990, Naskali 1992, Ovaskainen et ai. 1992). This information would be useful in multiple-use planning. Any quantification method used in forest planning should, however, simply and cheaply, produce measures by which each combination of stand wise production programs could be evaluated. So far, most results of research on economic evaluation of non-timber benefits are not applicable in standwise planning, but merely at national, or regional, forest policy level. However, monetary values of non-timber forest benefits can, perhaps, also be applied in the determination of the "socially justified" weights of objectives in planning at stand level. These weights could be applied, in particular, for state forests. 15.3 Some background to present approaches applied to forest planning in the Nordic countries Traditions and present approaches of multiple-use planning of forest resources are not similar in all the Nordic countries; different forestry con cepts create different planning traditions, and different planning traditions easily lead to different planning approaches and methods applied. Within each country, planning approaches and practices applied differ with regard to the very nature of the area to be planned. There is a greater will ingness to pay for the planning of, for example, nature conservation areas and recreation areas than of forests which are mainly reserved for timber produc tion. Deepening and diversifying planning processes should not cost more than the increased value in utility, attained via deepening and diversifying the proc ess. For example, public participation and ground vegetation mapping can be carried out in recreation areas, but they are nowadays regarded as too expen sive to be generally applied to the planning of privately owned commercial forests. In the Nordic countries, there is a relatively long tradition in research of timber management planning, starting with calculations based on the earliest national forest inventories in Finland and Sweden at the beginning of the 20th century. Also, in the last few decades, Scandinavian researchers have been in the forefront of methods for timber management planning, especially in the use of numerical optimization techniques (e.g. v. Malmborg 1967, Kilkki 1968 & 1985, Eriksson 1983, Jacobsson 1986, Kilkki et ai. 1986, Lappi & Siitonen 1985, Hoen 1990 & 1992, Kangas & Pukkala 1992, Lappi 1992, Pukkala & Kangas 1993, Valsta 1993). In planning calculations both at national and for est holding level, computerized cutting budget methods and packages have been applied (e.g. Siitonen 1983, Bengtsson & Lundström 1987, Pukkala 1988 & 1993, Spross & Walan 1990, Jacobsson & Jonsson 1991). Most of the sys- 396 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries tems developed for use at forest holding level are based on compartmentwise ocular inventory, simulation of tree stands, numerical optimization, and com pilation of a plan with standwise treatment schedule recommendations (Päivinen et ai. 1992). Quite recently, researchers in Nordic countries have also analyzed and de veloped advanced methods and approaches for multiple-use planning (e.g. Pukkala 1988 & 1993, Kangas 1991 & 1992 a & 1992 b, Gong 1992, Nuutinen & Pukkala 1992). However, analytical multiple-use planning methods have gained only limited application in forestry practice so far. Instead, mathemat ical programming has recently been approved as an approach to be used in practical timber management planning (Päivinen et ai. 1992). In forestry practice, perhaps the most progressive multiple-use planning methods, in the Nordic countries, are used in Norway. A working group under the Directorate for Nature Management in Norway has made a proposal for an action program with guidelines for multiple-use inventory and further integra tion of multiple use in the forest plan. The work is described in Lorentsen (1987) and Sognen (1989). The guidelines are adopted by the Norwegian For est Owners' Association and the Directorate for National Forests, and a com puter program for inventory on stand level is developed. The method has to fulfil the following requirements (Sognen 1989): - Multiple-use management programs must be presented together with other silvicultural treatment plans. - Multiple-use inventory and the presentation of registration must be done at stand level. - Multiple-use inventory must be sufficient to protect essential interests, - The method must be adjustable to variable weighting of multiple-use inter ests. - The method must be applicable along with traditional forest inventory. - Multiple-use considerations in focus must be easy to recognize for the for est owner. These requirements are valid also in other countries. In order to describe the various perceptions of planning in the Nordic countries, the following will shortly summarize legislation connected to forest planning, the overall planning policy, the different objectives that - within each country - it has traditionally been hoped to achieve, and other major con siderations reflecting the differences of management planning practices in dif ferent countries. Norway In Norway, a long-term forest plan has been compiled for most forests. How ever, Norwegian legislation does not require forest plans or any other announcements of management or forest plan operations. On the other hand, 397 Planning of multiple-use forestry the state subsidizes the preparation of forest plans. In order to qualify for such support, the plan must include multiple-use interests. A special planning package with an inventory system adopted by the Forest Owners' Association is generally used. There is no obligation to involve the public or interest groups in the planning processes or in the decision-making process. According to Eid (1990), the forest planning paradigm in Norway is based on a belief in a rationalistic planning process. But, as Hoen (1990) states, the sum of the decisions made by the forest owners without any forest policy will most likely conflict with the preferences of society. Nevertheless, in practice, interaction between the decision maker and the planner is quite rare (Eid 1990). In Norway, the Forestry Act states the management goals as timber pro duction as well as multiple-use forestry. However, the main decision at tributes when compiling a plan are, usually, timber production considerations, but especially in the mountain areas, recreation and nature protection are of great importance. Forests on altitudes above a specified contour line are de fined as protected forests, the management of which is restricted by regula tions. The localization of this contour line is currently under revision. In mountainous forests, the objectives for the national preservation plans include, broadly defined, trying to protect typical as well as rare Norwegian land scapes. Sweden Until quite recently, all Swedish forest owners were required to prepare a management plan. Planning was done by the Forest Agency and subsidized by the state. The municipalities had the right to plan their own forests, if they were of particular local importance. The goals for the municipality forest management were required to be in accordance with national policy but could be adjusted by the environmental and forest authorities at county level. Swedish forest policy is just now under critical discussion, and new defi nitions of forest policy, and its effects on forest planning, can be expected. It is obvious that Swedish forest management plans will, and should, in the fu ture, also include environmental information to some extent. Recently much attention has been paid to biological diversity. However, there is no standard ized method for multiple-use inventory, and the quality of registration there fore strongly depends on the planner's knowledge and interest in the subject. In general, so far, the public or the interest groups are not consulted. The main goal for Swedish forest planning will continue to be the maintenance of timber production possibilities of the forests. 398 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Iceland In Iceland, the situation is considerably different from the other Nordic coun tries. The forested area is very small, and it is mainly owned by the state. For est planning at this stage is mainly afforestation planning, and it was initiated by the Iceland Forestry Service in 1986. Multiple use is recognized and inte grated in the afforestation plans. The involvement of the public is not dealt with in a systematic way, though nature conservationists are consulted. Forested area in Iceland has been categorized into four main land-use classes. In protected forests the goals include, for example, protecting soil against erosion and restoring vegetation at sites where it has been destroyed. In production forests, timber, firewood and Christmas trees are produced. Re creation forests are mainly reserved for short-term visits close to urban areas and longer visits for camping. Shelterbelts and woodland include crop cultiva tion areas, areas reserved for domestic animals, farmsteads, and urban areas. Forests in Iceland provide various intangible benefits which are difficult to attach a monetary value to, but are undeniably real. The following benefits can be mentioned: new landscapes, diversified environment, shelter from wind, the pride of living in a forested country, possible changes in living hab its. The present forest plantations in Iceland are few and small compared to the area of the country. But they are extremely important as strategic bridgeheads, which achieve the above mentioned objectives. Denmark Forest planning is not compulsory in Denmark, but planning has a very long tradition. Long-term planning is carried out in all state forests and in private forests to a great extent. Planning is more infrequent only in small forests under 50 hectares. Danish forest plans are quite detailed with inventory and registration of compartments down to 0.2 hectares. However, inventory is only undertaken for wood production. State forest planning, carried out by the Forest and Nature Agency, takes multiple use into consideration. Nature conservation areas, historical monu ments and cultural heritage are mapped, but, so far, the scope of the inventory system for multiple-use interests is only to mark out the specific area with a code denoting special interest. An appendix to the forest plan is made with guidelines for treatments in such areas. The management choice is made by the Agency itself, and the plans are not official documents. During the last few years it has been common to invite representatives of the municipalities con cerned and different interest groups to let them propose plans for the forest management. Also in Denmark, the Forestry Act states the management goals to be wood production as well as multiple-use forestry. In general, the Danish plan ning tradition leans upon descriptive approaches rather than numerical ones. 399 Planning of multiple-use forestry Finland In Finland, all forest owners are required to announce cuttings to the District Forestry Board. Furthermore, forest regeneration plans have to be approved by the Board, or, as an alternative, the Board can accept a forest management plan. In the latter case, when implementing the plan, no separate approval is required. Having a forest management plan is not obligatory, but most forest owners have a long-term plan. Multiple-use inventory or other descriptions of multiple-use interests are not officially required in the plan. In state for ests, planning covers the whole forest area. Until recently, forest plans only included timber management considera tions. Nowadays, planning instructions also weight multiple-use aspects, both in private forestry and in state forests. Even industrial forest land owners give due consideration to multiple use, in particular in forests used for recreation. In state forests in Finland, special attention has been paid to game manage ment. In the private sector several experiments of incorporating multiple-use aspects into forest plans have been carried out. As well as in Sweden and in Norway, timber management planning ap proaches applied in Finland are rather progressive. For example, simulation and mathematical programming are widely used and tested in practical forest ry (Päivinen et ai. 1992). Nevertheless, planning tools and methods in forestry practice are rather undeveloped with regard to multiple-use considerations. So far, no analytical multiple-use planning methods are used in practice in Fin land. Only some simple rules are added to the general management policy: for example, no clearcuttings by the roadside, no cuttings in certain areas close to rivers, etc. Compilation of a forest plan still depends greatly on the opinions and expertise of planners, and there is no warranty of reaching the ideal goals formulated in planning instructions. Recently, methods for taking varying ob jectives into account in the compilation of a forest plan have been developed in forest research, also for multiple-use planning (e.g. Kangas & Pukkala 1992, Pukkala & Kangas 1993). Participative planning is applied only in specific forest areas, such as na ture conservation areas and recreation areas. In practice, the process of partic ipative planning most often consists of only two meetings, where interest groups and citizens have an opportunity to state their opinions concerning the goals, and planning and management practices in the area in question. No an alytical approaches to participative planning have so far been applied, al though some experiments on the use of such methods have been carried out (Kangas & Matero 1993). 400 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 15.4 Attempts to develop multiple-use planning methods and systems in the Nordic countries Even if multiple use has not yet become an integrated part of planning prac tice, all the Nordic countries have worked to create multiple-use planning systems. These planning systems work on different planning levels, and most of them have been developed to ease multiple-use planning and make it ade quate in the given situation, and, therefore, the systems may not apply in other countries or on other planning levels and with other objectives. How ever, a proper planning system should be flexible with regard to objectives and their weightings. The Analytic Hierarchy Process as an approach to strategic multiple-use planning In Finland, applications of a decision analysis method called the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) have been presented (e.g. Kangas 1991 & 1992 a, Kangas & Kuusipalo 1993), and also tested in forestry practice. The AHP is based on a general theory of ratio scale estimation (Saaty 1977 & 1980, Harker & Vargas 1987). By using the AHP, a ratio scale can be constructed on the basis of pairwise comparisons for describing the importance of objectives and the priorities of decision alternatives. Advantages of the use of the AHP in multiple-use planning include the ability to deal with both quantitative and qualitative decision attributes and to make them commensurable, and flexibility with regard to the setting of objec tives. The approach is easy to apply, although the calculation technique might seem rather complicated. Furthermore, sensitivity analyses are easy to carry out. The main disadvantage of the standard version of the AHP is the small maximum number of decision alternatives to be compared in a planning cal culation. Due to this, the AHP is most suitable to strategic forest planning with a limited number of management strategy alternatives. For example, environ mental impact analyses can be carried out using this approach. As an illustration of the AHP approach to multiple-use planning, a case study of Kangas (1 992 a) is summarized. In the study, a forest plan was chosen for a forest holding owned by a non-industrial forest landowner. The case study area of 86 hectares was located in western Finland. The land owner's utility - which was to be maximized - was broken down into three objectives. The objectives the landowner laid on the forest area were maximizing the monetary benefits from wood production, maximizing the beauty of the forest landscape, and producing as good habitat as possible for certain game species. Because all the objectives were not reachable at the same time, the optimal compromise solution between these three objectives was sought. 401 Planning of multiple-use forestry By using the timber management planning package MELA (Siitonen 1983), six alternative production programs, consisting of treatment schedule recommendations at standwise level, were generated for the forest area. The starting point was that the objectives and their weightings could not properly be taken into account in calculations made by a planning package based on lin ear programming. In any application of the AHP, the decision situation is first organized as a decision hierarchy (Figure 15.2). At the uppermost level, there is the general goal of decision making - in this case study, maximizing the utility of the for est land owner. The second level consists of decision objectives. The lower most level consists of decision alternatives - in this case, alternative forest management strategies for the next 20 years. If needed in order to evaluate the decision alternatives with respect to the objectives, objectives are broken down into more detailed decision attributes between the levels of objectives and decision alternatives. Objectives and attributes are described in more de tail until each decision alternative can be evaluated with respect to each de tailed decision attribute. In the second stage, the importances of objectives are compared in a pair wise manner with respect to the overall utility. In the comparisons a certain verbal scale and its numerical analogue is normally applied. As an alternative, graphical interface with barlengths expressing the importance of objectives can be used (e.g. Pukkala & Kangas 1993). The question is, which of the two objectives compared is more important, and how much is it more important. A Figure 15.2 Hierarchy for maximizing the utility of a non-industrial forest landowner in a case study by Kangas (1992a). 402 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries matrix of pairwise comparisons, consisting of numerical importance ratios, is constructed. Using this matrix as input, the relative importances of objectives are estimated using the eigenvalue technique: the right eigenvector of the larg est eigenvalue constitutes the estimation of relative weights of objectives. The importances are scaled to sum up to one. In the case study, the importances, determined by the land owner, were: wood production 0.63, forest landscape 0.28, and game management considerations 0.09. Using the same technique, the importances of decision attributes with re spect to the objective they refer to are estimated. For example, the importance of forest stands near the yard, forest stands near a path going through the for est, and other forest stands in the area, with respect to the forest landscape as a whole, were compared in a pairwise manner, and the relative importance of these decision elements were calculated. The importances, with respect to the forest landscape were, respectively, 0.65, 0.25, and 0.10. In the case study, the decision element of wood production was broken down into three more de tailed elements, whose importances with respect to wood production were de termined by the land-owner: net income from timber sales in the first 10 year period (relative importance with respect to wood production (0.40), net in come from timber sales in the second 10 year period (0.20), and the state of the forest at the end of the second 10 year planning period, measured by the value of the growing stock at that moment (0.40). Correspondingly, the decision el ement of game was further broken down into two elements: priority of habitats with respect to moose (0.33), and priority of habitats with respect to wildfowl (0.67). In the next step, decision alternatives are evaluated with respect to those decision elements which are not broken down into more detailed attributes. The same method of pairwise comparisons and the eigenvalue technique is ap plied. The question is, which of the two management strategies compared is Table 15.1 Priorities of alternative management strategies with respect to the decision attributes which have not been broken down into more detailed attributes. Decision attribute Priorities 1 2 3 4 5 6 Net income, 1st period 0,02 0,19 0,36 0,05 0,11 0,27 Net income, 2nd period 0,03 0,18 0,10 0,33 0,30 0,06 State at the end of 2nd period 0,26 0,22 0,10 0,10 0,12 0,21 Landscape, near to yard 0,33 0,20 0,10 0,08 0,15 0,15 Landscape, near to path 0,29 0,15 0,19 0,08 0,23 0,06 Landscape, other stands 0,38 0,28 0,18 0,07 0,20 0,07 Habitats, moose 0,08 0,39 0,26 0,15 0,04 0,08 Habitats, wildfowl 0,18 0,09 0,32 0,23 0,14 0,05 403 Planning of multiple-use forestry more preferred with respect to the decision attribute in question, and how much more is it preferred. Instead of this kind of comparisons, numerical values, de scribing the priority of decision alternatives, for example, money units, can be applied. The result of matrix opera tions is the estimation of the relative priorities of the decision alternatives with respect to decision attribute ( Table 15.1). Comparisons of strate gies with respect to habitats of game species were carried out by an expert on game management, because the land owner could not evaluate them himself. Table 15.2 Global priorities of management strategies determined on the basis of prefer ences of the landowner. After the relative importance of the objectives, the importance of the detailed decision attribute with re spect to the objectives they refer to, and relative priorities of manage ment strategies with respect to each decision attribute have been estimat ed, priorities of strategies with respect to overall utility can be calculated. The management strategy with the greatest global priority is the most recommend able forest plan. In the case study, the recommended management strategy was strategy number 2 (Table 15.2). The AHP has also been applied to participative planning and conflict man agement in state forests at Ruunaa nature conservation area in eastern Finland (Kangas 1992 c, Kangas & Matero 1993) (Figure 15.3). Some properties of the AHP have been utilized in determining the weights of objectives in multi-ob jective mathematical programming (Kangas & Pukkala 1992), and in a heuris tic optimization method for tactic forest planning (Pukkala & Kangas 1993). The eigenvalue technique and pairwise comparisons have been applied in the estimation of parameters of multi-attribute utility functions in the analyses of forest regeneration alternatives (Kangas 1992 b), in calculating a biodiversity index to be used in forest planning (Kangas & Kuusipalo 1993), and in estima tion of landscape preferences (Kangas et ai. 1993). Incorporation of amenity values into forest management planning Pukkala (1988) has developed a method by which amenity values can be incorporated into forest management planning carried out using mathematical programming. The management plan is based on treatment schedules simu lated for each forest stand over a 20 year planning period. The amenity is divided into two sub-criteria: within-stand amenity, and amenity of landscape when viewed from afar, i.e. as a distant scene. Strategy Global priority 1 0,179 2 0,198 3 0,193 4 0,120 5 0,154 6 0,167 404 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 15.3 A simplified example of hierarchies of participative planning problems when a representative democracy approach is applied (Kangas 1992c). A level of players is added to the second level of the hierarchy. The importances of the criteria are assessed separately by each concerned interest group. The within-stand amenity is calculated as an adjective sum, which is esti mated for each forest stand, and for each treatment schedule considered, at three time points. For expressing the within-stand amenity no supplementary measurements in the forest are needed, as the amenity values are calculated us ing known stand data as predictors, i.e. such characteristics as total volume of trees, mean height of trees, proportions of different tree species, etc. The mean adjective sum of the whole area in a selected year can be applied as an objec tive or constraining variable of optimization. The far-view amenity is assessed on the basis of computer illustrations. The illustrations show the predicted temporal change of landscape when implementing a particular management plan. Management alternatives are developed at stand level through simulating a number of possible treatments for each stand. On the basis of the simulated alternatives, mathematical optimization is carried out in order to evaluate the consequences of each individual alternative, and to find the optimum combi nation of treatment alternatives. In the case study, the management period of 20 years was divided into two 10 year sub-periods. The following parameters were chosen as optimization parameters in the case study: net income during the first 10 year period, net income during the second 10 year period, total stemwood volume at the end of the second 10 year period, and mean amenity at the end of the second 10 year period. Amenity 405 Planning of multiple-use forestry was described as an adjective sum according to Savolainen & Kellomäki (1981) and was estimated for the individual stand to be: HV = 49.04 + 0.3344 H + 1 ,398 nT + 0.03370V1, where HV = amenity value (adjective sum) H = mean height (m) nT = number of tree species VI = volume of hardwood (m 3 /ha) Generally, in the computations of Pukkala (1988), the adjective sum var ied between 50 (low amenity) and 67 (high amenity). In order to make the range of variation more understandable, the adjective sums were scaled be tween O (very poor) and 50 (very good). The mean amenity for the forest as a whole was stipulated to be: where gHV = the mean forest amenity based on stand level computation A = stand area Far-view amenity for a forest area does not compare with gHV, because, among other things, gHV does not describe the variation in stand characteris tics. Therefore, the far-view amenity was assessed subjectively on the basis of computer drawn landscape illustrations which were shown to a number of per sons who scaled the illustrations from 0 (very poor) to 50 (very good) (see also Pukkala & Kellomäki 1988) (Figure 15.4). This method, which includes simulation and creation of alternatives at stand level, leads to high flexibility in forest management. However, the opti mization results are very dependent on the acceptability of the amenity com putations applied. In addition, the scale applied in amenity evaluations does not, in principle, fulfil the requirements of mathematical programming tech niques used in the study. Plan for municipality forest management In Sweden, Lidestav (1990) has developed a planning technique called PIKS for forests owned by municipalities. PIKS is a combination of two existing planning techniques. One is a position analysis technique (Soderbaum 1984, 1986) which is mainly used in constituting a general framework coverage for the planning process, while the other is a forestry microcomputer-based tim ber management planning package called PLAN-20 (e.g. Ekvall 1986). YjHVxA gHV- 406 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 15.4 An example of the visualization of the effects of cuttings on forest landscape using computer graphics. The actual landscape and the predicted landscape after 10 years in three different management plans (Pukkala 1988). The fundamental idea behind PIKS is that planning should be based on democratic principles. The following must, therefore, be noted when prepar ing the planning technique: 1) The municipality has a large multi-sector role. 2) Local conditions must be considered. 3) Consequences of alternate management and operational forms must be shown. 4) The plan must reveal conflicts. 5) The planning process must facilitate direct interaction between different interest groups. 6) Possibilities for non-experts to join in the decision-making process must be emphasized. 7) Investigations and modifications/follow-ups must be carried out at low costs. The planning technique tries to combine two existing but very different planning methods, a traditional forest planning system and a holistic planning method. PIKS concentrates on identifying relevant systems and comparable parameters and contains examples of how to carry out the following analyses: 1) Calculation and comparison of alternative management programs in regard to the area covered by restrictions, logged volume, amount of logging car ried out by municipality, average wood price, income from forestry, employment, and mechanization. 407 Planning of multiple-use forestry 2) Structuring and identifying systems influenced by the choice of manage ment program at different levels: local - within community, local - outside community, entire community and region level. The influenced features include, among others: - Land, as a physical system (timber production, production of berries, mush rooms, huntable wildlife, protection of valuable areas, recreation). - Forestry system (community forestry, industrial forestry). - System for timber supply and conversion. - Monetary system (direct, indirect). - Energy supply system (leisure time, fuel wood, cutters, emergency serv ice). - Labour market system (open, protected). - Social system (work satisfaction, outdoor environment). - Institutional system (change in former practice and thereby change in polit ical statement). 3) Analysis of the effects of the management programs on: - Biological dimensions (forest ecosystem, conditions of landscape and na ture protection). - Aesthetical dimensions. - Monetary dimensions (forest management, community management, pri vate economics, industrial economics). - Social dimensions (work opportunities, work environment, recreation, en vironment for housing). - Know-how dimensions (e.g. alert in case of war). - Historical dimensions (e.g. including traditional features difficult to change). 4) Analysis of interests shows what interests a management program will favour. This means also an identification of the direction and the goals which the specific interest attempts to promote (Table 15.5). The PIKS system was illustrated and tested by a case study. Four different plans were prepared for a forest area in a municipality in central Sweden hav ing about 20,000 inhabitants and 4,500 hectares forest land. The planning pe riod was 10 years. After preparing the alternative management programs, systems which might be influenced by the choice of plan were identified.With an interest analysis, interests which were favoured or disfavoured by imple menting one or the other plan were clarified. The order of preference was giv en for each interest. This ordinal information was arranged as a matrix. On the basis of the matrix, possible conflicts and consensuses were examined. By ap plying an effect analysis, the plans were afterwards compared with regard to the expected effects. As a conclusion of the case study, none of the four man agement programs proved to be clearly the best or worst. PIKS can be seen as an approach to organizing the planning situation with its most evident influences, interests, effects and impacts. The final choice 408 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Table 15.5 Examples of interests and connected goals when the PIKS system is applied (Lidestav 1990). should always be preceded by evaluating and weighting of all effects and in terests considered. Using PIKS, effects and interests can be clarified, but, how ever, PIKS does not state who should be in charge of weighting the effects and interests and determining the final operational goals. PIKS develops a base for decision making, but it does not tell us how to maximize overall utility. PIKS puts more trust in the planner's brain than in computerized methods of making different dimensions of decision-making commensurable and in evaluating alternative forest plans with respect to over all utility. Implementation of PIKS as a participative planning approach is quite planner oriented, and there is no warranty of the public having an effect on the choice of management plan. After all, PIKS is a sophisticated effort to connect forest planning with the needs of the surrounding society. Common use of PIKS and the AHP approach to participative forest planning would be worth developing and testing. Use of the AHP might eliminate some disadvantages of PIKS, and vice versa. Employer Administration/ supervision Highest possible degree of control Office work Simplest routines Work planning Highest flexibility Output/product Highest quality Net income from logging Highest possible income Employees Work load Minimize heavy and risky work elements Work contentedness Varied, qualifying work Salary Highest possible payment Society Landscape care Smallest possible amount of clearcuttings Flora & fauna The greatest species diversity + protection of certain species/ biotopes Taxation Lowest tax rate Special interests Residences Best outdoor environment Wood industry Best supply of suitable products Wood industry Lowest price per m 3 409 Planning of multiple-use forestry Multiple-use planning of the Hou Skov forest area In Denmark, an approach to the planning of a privately owned forest area with remarkable public interests has been developed (Kristiansen 1993). The approach is still being elaborated. Up to date, only some preliminary tests have been carried out. The study tries, for its part, to make the concept of multiple use, as mentioned in Danish forest legislation, and the discussion of multiple-use planning, specific and operational. The approach combines the traditional descriptive planning approach with more modern planning methods. An important question is where and how de scriptive forest planning processes can successively be applied and/or devel oped so that multiple-use aspects can properly be taken into consideration. The study deals with registration methods, including the relevance of individ ual interests for registration, and an comprehensible presentation of registra tions. Modern methods considered include linear programming and goal programming as optimization techniques. A case study is carried out at a forest area called Hou Skov. In the planning process, registrations and suggestions for operational purposes take place in two stages. The first stage is an excursion with local representatives of differ ent interest groups. The purpose is to map out interests in the forest, and to dis cuss future operation possibilities. In the second stage, a more detailed registration is carried out in areas where a deeper analysis of interests is rele vant. The assessment of relevance should not be taken as an argument for or against certain interests, but as a recognition that not all multiple-use elements are relevant in all forest stands. The final objectives are determined by the for est owner together with the planner. In Denmark, as in the other Nordic coun tries, it is the owner's right to choose among and give priorities to various wishes and interests of the public in relation to his or her own objectives, as long as his or her overall priorities still conform to the requirements of the law. At the Hou Skov area, the priorities of the interest groups can be listed af ter an excursion. The forest owner regards the forest, on the one hand, as an economic investment, and, on the other hand, as a property having a high amenity value. The owner has bought the area not only for wood production purposes, but also because of its beautiful scenery and its beech stands. For conservation reasons, two areas are given high priority by the owner: old beech forests, where the intention is to preserve the gene pool intact, and some areas which will be left "relatively untouched" for protecting, for example, wildlife. Interests other than those of the forest owner at Hou Skov are as follows: 1) Landscape aesthetics. The landscape values of the forest are strongly con nected with the visitors' interests, but also with the owner's objective to increase the amenity value of the forest. 2) Outdoor recreation. The unorganized as well as the organized use of the area for outdoor recreation is limited. A large majority of the visitors are 410 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries local people. The main activity is walking, often with a dog. In addition, a local orienteering club is interested in using the forest area. 3) Natural values. Generally, more hardwood is wanted, especially beech and oak. It is desirable to preserve or re-create meadows and the present graz ing areas at Hou Skov. It is also desirable to preserve the old beech stands and have slow natural reproduction. Two streams in the area have a charac teristic stream flora, which are worth protecting, as well as a few rare botanical and ornithological species in the area. 4) Environmental protection. Interests mentioned in 3) included also some interests concerning environmental protection. For environmental reasons it is desirable to minimize the use of fertilizers and chemicals. 5) Cultural history. The cultural-historical values of Hou Skov include old methods of cultivation as well as barrows, arterial roads, dikes, property lines, ponds, etc. Actual maintenance of the cultural monuments is not considered necessary, except grazing of the meadows. In addition to the above mentioned interests, future conditions and inter ests also appear in a region plan of the county authorities, and local plans for the municipality. These include, for example, the building of a camping site with a capacity of 500 guests, and the establishing of bicycle routes and public green spaces in the planning area. For the computational phase of the approach, a detailed level for the reg istration is laid down, and measurable parameters for the individual interests, as well as interaction between the interests, are defined. At the registration, the following three principles can be applied (listed in order of priority): 1) Counting or other quantitative measures are applied when possible and suitable. If the quantitative value can be priced, this is exploited. For example, wood production is registered in the traditional manner as money units determined on the basis of volume, assortment, and unit prices of wood. 2) When quantitative measures are not practicable, not even at sample plot level, one or a few resources which can indicate a value for the rest of the resources are quantified. For example, biotope quality can be used as a measure of natural value. Biotope quality can be determined, for example, on the basis of birds which breed in tree hollows, dead and dying trees, and some special indicator species. 3) If it is not possible, practicable, or suitable to start a more definite registra tion work, a subjective area related value of the resource is fixed on a scale from 0 (low) to 3 (high). A similar subjective registration can be made by means of descriptive and graduating words, and worked out on an area basis, line basis, or as individual points. In planning calculations, the objectives for the forest area are determined in measurable units. Requirements concerning profitability of wood produc- 411 Planning of multiple-use forestry tion can be determined as in any forest planning system. On the basis of the analysis of multiple-use interests, additional objectives can be assessed as ful filment amounts, for example, for grazing area, beech forest area and protected area. Mathematical programming methods can be applied in supporting the de cision-making. However, the planning process can also be carried out without numerical optimization. When analysing the consequences of the plan, an es timated technical and financial status for the forest at the end of the planning period is reached. The new status is compared with the management objective, so that it can be checked whether the plan harmonizes with the objectives or not. Using mathematical programming techniques, alternative efficient solu tions can be quickly produced, if the status does not fit. In addition, sensitivity analysis can be carried out using optimization calculations; for example, if the objective is changed, or if the emphasis between the individual interests or the subjective registration of the value of individual interests is changed. The final plan is a negotiation solution, a compromise between the owner and the interest groups. Results of optimization calculations can be used as useful information in the negotiations. 15.5 The perspectives of multiple-use planning In the Nordic countries, the first steps in the way of multiple-use planning have been taken. So far, multiple-use planning has, however, mostly served the developing and testing of alternative planning approaches rather than used as a realized forestry practice. Multiple-use has usually only been inte grated into forestry by simple rules concerning forest management practices. In some special cases, such as nature conservation areas and research projects, a panel of experts has participated in the planning. In the future, multiple use will be an integrated part of nearly all forest planning. Besides the public and forest land owners' weighting of multiple benefits of forests, the international community also needs to consider biolog ical diversity and other non-timber benefits and uses of forests to be included in planning. In order to carry out multiple-use planning calculations simply, cheaply and rapidly, but at the same time accurately enough, it would be rec ommendable to apply computerized multiple-use planning methods and sys tems. The incorporation of several experts into the planning process, as required by properly performed descriptive approaches to multi-objective planning problems, is usually too expensive and time consuming. Up to date, because of the lack of analytical methods which would be gen erally applicable, simple and cheap to use, and flexible enough with regard to the setting of objectives, descriptive approaches have frequently been applied in practical multiple-use planning. However, the shortcomings of a pure de scriptive approach, compared to numerical methods, are obvious. For exam- 412 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries pie, descriptive approaches are very planner oriented, and, when they are applied, usually only the planner can control the planning process. Numerical methods improve communication, speed up the planning process, and make it repeatable. Without analytical means, evaluation of decision alternatives with respect to the objectives and preferences of the decision maker is difficult. Fur thermore, descriptive methods can usually consider only a few alternative pro duction programs, and, because numerical simulation is not possible, future states of forest are difficult to assess. The greatest advantage of a descriptive approach is its flexibility. It is not limited to rough numbers and quantities in presenting the planning problem. Nevertheless, proper planning is not possible without managing - either man ually or by applying numerical tools and methods - the data and the informa tion describing the forest as well as the objectives and preferences. The capacity of the human brain is often too limited to solve alone complex plan ning problems of multiple-use forestry. In each planning process, the final choice is made by a human being, by applying a more or less descriptive approach. The aim of any plan, and system, method, tool, etc., applied in a planning process, should be to further as good decisions as possible in that final choice. Nowadays, and most probably also in the near future, the best solutions to problems in multiple-use planning of forest resources can be attained by the common use of both descriptive and nu merical methods, i.e. by applying so-called hybrid approaches. Crucial problems in multiple-use planning of forest resources include: 1) determining the objectives and their importances, 2) evaluating the decision alternatives with respect to each objective, and 3) making the objectives and the evaluations of decision alternatives commensurable (Kangas 1992 a). Nowadays, as mentioned above, some methods for clarifying the objectives and preferences, and taking them into consideration in the evaluation of alter native forest plans are already available - not only in strategic planning but also in calculations at forest stand level. However, these methods are products of forest research, and most often require some refinement before they can be applied to forestry practice. At the moment, the most crucial problem of multiple-use planning is the evaluation of decision alternatives with respect to different goods and services of forests in a way which is applicable in planning calculations at standwise level. In computerized approaches, effects and influences of implementation of alternative forest plans should be modelled. For example, production func tions of different picked products or game species are not yet available, which could be used to estimate priorities of different production programs on the ba sis of stand and area characteristics. In principle, expertise could be utilized in a case where there is a lack of objective information to be used in the evalua tion. There is also a shortage of methods rapid and simple enough for estimat ing subjective preferences, although some prototypes of such methods have been presented (Kangas et ai. 1993). Recently, in Finland, attempts to develop 413 Planning of multiple-use forestry methods for modelling expertise as well as subjective preferences for forest planning purposes have been carried out. Prototypes of such models can be ex pected in the near future. The compilation of a proper multiple-use forest plan requires a more ver satile description of the forest area to be planned compared to the planning of timber production. For example, the presence of dead or rottening wood is im portant with regard to many rare and vulnerable species, and the characteris tics of ground vegetation are of value when assessing priorities with respect to wildlife habitats. In forest inventory made for timber production planning, at tention is paid only to living trees. If, for example, biological diversity is to be taken into consideration, quantities of different kind of dead and rottening wood should be measured. In addition, because the future state of a forest should also be assessed, development of these quantities should be predicted. Spatial data is often needed in multiple-use planning. For example, man agement of mating and nest sites is crucial for some wildlife species, and a variety of forest stands with regard to stand characteristics is an important characteristic when the amenity values of a forest area are assessed. Geo graphic information systems (GIS) have been applied in forest planning for managing spatial data (e.g. Nalli 1992, Nuutinen & Pukkala 1992). Many commercial forest planning packages with spatial data management options are nowadays available. Besides being more difficult, multiple-use planning is more expensive than single-use planning. The rule of maximizing utility is also valid when it is a question of deepening and diversifying forest planning processes. The marginal cost of deepening and diversifying should not be higher than the mar ginal utility obtained. 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(PLAN - 20: a valuation and planning system for forestry.) Sveriges lantbruksuniver sitet, Institutionen för skogsekonomi, Rapport 43. (In Swedish.) 414 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Eriksson, L.O. 1983. Column generation applied to long range forestry planning models. The Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Operational Efficiency, Report 155. 38 pp. Gong, P. 1992. Multiobjective dynamic programming for forest resource manage ment. Forest Ecology and Management 48: 43-54. Harker, P.T. & Vargas, L.G. 1987. The theory of ratio scale estimation: Saaty's Ana lytic Hierarchy Process. Management Science 33: 1385-1403. Hoen, H.E 1990. Theoretical and empirical studies of long range forest management planning. Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Forestry, Doctor scientiarum theses 23/1990. 144 pp. Floen, H.F. 1992. GAYA-LP: A PC-based long range forest management model. Paper presented at EURO XII/TIMS XXXI Joint International Conference, Operational Research/Management Science, Helsinki, Finland, June 28th- July Ist. Hunter, M.L. 1990. Wildlife, forests, and forestry: principles of managing forests for biological diversity. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 370 pp. Hyberg, B.T. & Holthausen, D.M. 1989. The behavior of nonindustrial private forest landowners. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 19: 1014-1023. Jacobsson, J. 1986. Optimization and data requirements: a forest management plan ning problem. Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelning för Skogsuppskat tning och Skogsindelning. 143 pp. Jacobsson, J. & Jonsson, B. 1991. The forest management planning package: experi ence from applications. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Depart ment of Biometry and Forest Planning, Report 21. 3 8 pp. Kangas, J. 1991. Menetelmä metsäojitus vaihtoehtojen hyöty vertailuun. Summary: A method for utility comparison of forest drainage alternatives. Suo 49-59. Kangas, J. 1992 a. Multiple-use planning of forest resources by using the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 7: 259-268. Kangas, J. 1992 b. Choosing the regeneration chain in a forest stand: a decision analy sis model based on multi-attribute utility theory. University of Joensuu, Publi cations in Sciences 24. 230 pp. Kangas, J. 1992 c. Public participation in forest management. An application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Paper presented at EURO XII/TIMS XXXI Joint International Conference, Operational Research/Management Science, Hel sinki, Finland, June 28th-July Ist. Kangas, J. & Kuusipalo, J. 1993. Estimation and use of biodiversity in forest man agement planning. In: Linddal, M. & Naskali, A. (eds.). Valuing biodiversity. Scandinavian Forest Economics 34: 124-135. Kangas, J., Laasonen, L. & Pukkala, T. 1993. A method for estimating forest land owner's landscape preferences. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 8: 408-417. Kangas, J. & Matero, J. 1993. Ruunaan luonnonsuojelualueen jako aarni-ja puisto osiin. Kokemuksia AHP -menetelmän käytöstä osallistuvassa metsäsuunnitte lussa. (Dividing the Ruunaa nature conservation area into wilderness and park areas. Experiences of the use of the AHP in participative forest planning.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 449. 44 pp. (In Finnish.) 415 Planning of multiple-use forestry Kangas, J. & Pukkala, T. 1992. A decision theoretic approach applied to goal pro gramming of forest management. Silva Fennica 26(3): 169-176. Kangas, J., Päivinen, R. & Varjo, J. 1992. Integroitu metsäsuunnittelu. (Integrated forest planning.) University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, Research Notes 2: 1—34. (In Finnish.) Karppinen, H. & Hänninen, H. 1990. Yksityistilojen hakkuumahdollisuuksien käyttö Etelä-Suomessa. Summary: Actual and allowable cut in nonindustrial private woodlots in southern Finland. Folia Forestalia 747. 84 pp. Keeney, R.L. 1988. Decision analysis: an overview. Operations Research 30: 803- 838. Kilkki, P. 1968. Income-oriented cutting budget. Acta Forestalia Fennica 91. 54 pp. Kilkki, P. 1985. Timber management planning. University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, Silva Carelica 5. 160 pp. Kilkki, P., Lappi, J. & Siitonen, M. 1986. Long-term timber production planning via utility maximization. TIMS studies in the Management Sciences 21: 285-295. Kreutzwiser, R.D. & Wright, C.S. 1990. Factors influencing integrated forest man agement on private industrial forest land. Journal of Environmental Manage ment 30: 31-46. Kristiansen, L. 1993. Planlasgning af flersidig skovdrift. (Planning of multiple-use forestry.) A research project plan. (In Danish.) Lappi, J. 1992. JLP - A linear programming package for management planning. The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Research Papers 414. 134 pp. Lappi, J. & Siitonen, M. 1985. A utility model for timber production based on differ ent interest rates for loans and savings. Silva Fennica 19(3): 271-280. Lidestav, G. 1990. PIKS: Planeringsinstrument for kommunägd skog. (PIKS: Plan ning instrument for community owned forest.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Institutionen for Skogsteknik, Research Notes 191. 128 pp. (In Swedish.) Lönnstedt, L. 1989. Goals and cutting decisions of private small forest owners. Scan dinavian Journal of Forest Research 4: 563-574. Lorentsen, Ö. 1987. Flerbrukshensyn i skogsbruksplanen. (Multiple-use aspects in forestry plans.) Direktoratet for naturforvaltning, DN-rapport 8a: 1-41. (In Norwegian.) von Malmborg, G. 1967. Ekonomisk planering av det kombinerade skogs- och jord bruksföretaget. (Economic planning in the combined forestry and agriculture enterprise.) Jordbrukets utredningsinstitut, Meddelande 6: 1-129. (In Swed ish.) Mattsson, L. 1990. Hunting in Sweden: extent, economic values and structural prob lems. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 5: 563-574. Mendoza, G.A., Bare, 8.8. & Campbell, G.E. 1987. Multiobjective programming for generating alternatives: a multiple-use planning example. Forest Science 33: 458^68. Millar, C.1., Ledig, F.T. & Riggs, L.A. 1990. Conservation of diversity in forest eco systems. Forest Ecology and Management 35: 1-4. Nalli, A. 1992. Monikäytön suunnittelumenetelmä. (A method for multiple-use plan ning.) University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry. Mimeograph. 48 pp. (In Finnish.) 416 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Naskali, A. 1992. The concept of existence value and wilderness preservation. Scan dinavian Forest Economics 33: 207-230. Nuutinen, T. & Pukkala, T. 1992. Long-term forestry management with landscape illustrations. The Joint FAO/ECE/ILO Committee on Forest Technology, Management and Training. Seminar on the use of information systems in for est management. Garpenberg, Sweden 14-18 September 1992. (In press). Ovaskainen, V., Savolainen, H. & Sievänen, T. 1992. The benefits of managing for ests for grouse habitats: a contingent valuation experiment. Scandinavian For est Economics 33: 263-274. Päivinen, R„ Kangas, J. & Varjo, J. 1992. Katsaus metsätalouden suunnitteluun Suomessa ja Ruotsissa. (An overview of forest planning in Finland and in Sweden.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 406. 52 pp. (In Finnish.) Probst, J.R. & Crow, T.R. 1991. Integrating biological diversity and resource man agement. Journal of Forestry 89(2): 12-17. Pukkala, T. 1988. Methods to incorporate the amenity of landscape into forest man agement planning. Silva Fennica 22(2): 135-146. Pukkala, T. 1993. Metsäsuunnitteluohjelmisto MONSU. (A forest planning program MONSU.) Mimeograph. 42 pp. (In Finnish.) Pukkala, T. & Kangas, J. 1993. A heuristic optimization method for forest planning. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. (In press.) Pukkala, T. & Kellomäki, S. 1988. Simulation as a Tool in Designing Forest Land scape. Landscape and Urban Planning 16: 253-260. Saaty, T.L. 1977. A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structures. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 15: 234-281. Saaty, T.L. 1980. The Analytic Hierarchy Process. McGraw-Hill, New York. 287 pp. Savolainen, R. & Kellomäki, S. 1981. Metsän maisemallinen arvostus. Summary: Scenic value of forest landscape. Acta Forestalia Fennica 170. 74 pp. Siitonen, M. 1983. A long term forestry planning system based on data from Finnish national forest inventory. In: Forest inventory for improved management. Uni versity of Helsinki, Department of Forest Mensuration and Management, Research Notes 17: 195-207. Söderbaum, P. 1984. Objectives, values and ideologies in economics: towards a nor mative theory of institutional economics. The Swedish University of Agricul tural Sciences, Department of Economics and Statistics, Report 231: 1-55. Söderbaum, P. 1986. Beslutsunderlag. Ensidiga eller allsidiga utredningar? (Basis for decisions. One-sided or all-sided investigations?) DOXA, Serie för kommu nal ekonomi och organisation 9: 1-196. (In Swedish.) Sognen, S.M. 1989. Skogsbruksplan med flerbrukshensyn. (Forestry plans with mul tiple-use approach.) Aktuelt fra Statens fagtjeneste for landbruket 1989(4): 105-111. (In Norwegian.) Spross, R. & Walan, B. 1990. Dataprogram för skogsbruksplanering: en jämförelse av modeller utvecklade för privatskogsbruket. (Data program for forestry planning: a comparison of models for private forestry.) Examensarbete i skogsindelning. Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet, Umeä. 40 pp. (In Swedish.) Valsta, L. 1993. Stand management optimization based on growth simulators. The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Research Papers 453. 51 pp. + 4 appendices. 417 Multiple-use research 16 Multiple-use research Olli Saastamoinen 1 Marjatta Hytönen 2 Abstract Important and useful multiple-use forestry research is carried out in numer ous sciences and even inside forestry research it is difficult to delineate multi ple-use research exactly. However, it generally refers to research which inte grates two or more forest uses and functions. The main part of the article describes the history, organizational development and major multiple-use research efforts in the Nordic countries from the late 19605. Recent and on going changes in forest and environmental legislation in the Nordic and other countries reflect the changing values and demands of people. They also create new challenges for forestry research. Important research areas in the future will include the consequences of European integration. There is also a need for increased research efforts focusing on social processes, changing values and value conflicts over forests and forestry in the Nordic countries. Keywords: integrated forest management, history, research organizations, research projects, internationalization, social values. 1 University of Joensuu Faculty of Forestry Box 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland 2 Finnish Forest Research Institute Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland 418 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 16.1 Introduction The contents of multiple-use forestry have been expressed in different ways in different times and have depended on the cultural context. The contents of multiple-use research also change along with the demands of societies. The functions and uses of forests are numerous and dynamic. There has always been, and increasingly will be, a lot of scientific research done on the differ ent components of forest ecosystems and on the varying values and uses of forests within many branches of basic and applied sciences. Where should we draw the line between multiple-use research and other forestry research? Twenty years ago most of us regarding ourselves as multi ple-use researchers were inclined to think that basic biological research, for example the identification of plant and animal species of forests, was to be left outside the concept. But what about now, when biodiversity conservation is emerging as one of the major objectives of forestry? It seems that biologi cal species research is becoming one of the basic components of multiple-use research. It must be clearly recognized that there is a lot of extremely important and useful research done for multipurpose forestry in numerous sciences as in basic and applied ecology, botany and zoology, soil science, geography, land scape architecture, sociology, history, political sciences and economics, just to name the most obvious. It is impossible to do justice to all the relevant research in a short article like this. It is also clear that for the purposes of the present survey a line of some kind must be drawn. An organizational border line will be adopted; the focus will be on multiple-use research carried out in forestry research organizations and the faculties and university departments of forestry in the Nordic countries. However, in some cases relevant research done in some other organizations will be mentioned. No doubt even the field inside forestry research is too wide to be covered properly. Wood production is one of the many functions of forests. The bulk of forestry research has been and still is concentrated on it. Many studies dealing with it are clearly relevant for the integration of forest uses. Research on the rapidly growing impacts of industrial emissions on forests and the increasingly interesting functions of forests in the carbon cycle also provide useful basic information for the purpose of integration. This survey will be further limited to that part of forestry research which can be identified in the Nordic context as being most relevant when integrat ing two or more forest uses or forest functions: 1) in joint production; two or more uses occur in the same area at the same time, 2) by segregating uses spatially as alternative processes; the total area is allo cated for specific uses or combinations of uses, or 3) in sequential production; different uses are organized according to time scale using either one of the two above mentioned approaches. 419 Multiple-use research The multiple-use concept presented above is wider than most other com monly presented definitions. It is also useful to emphasize that the concept in this wide sense still has an objective content in the Nordic countries without having been negatively labelled as the specific policy of a specific interest group. It is necessary to limit the period to be surveyed. The multiple-use con cept entered the Nordic forestry discussion gradually during the sixties (Hytönen 1995). Consequently, the related research was initiated in the late sixties. Research from that time will be considered here. However, it should be recognized that many earlier works have been and still are relevant in many aspects of studying forest uses and value relationships. In the following, multiple-use research will be surveyed in each Nordic country. A short overview of the history and organizational development as well as of major research efforts until now will be presented. Existing organi zations and research activities will also be described and, where possible, some future prospects will be outlined. 16.2 Denmark Multiple-use research in Denmark had its formal beginning in 1975 with the establishment of the "Forest and Folk" (Skov og Volk) -project at the Danish Forest Experiment Station. The project was initiated and financed during 1974-1980 by the Danish Agricultural and Veterinary Research Council. It included national, regional and local estimations of recreational use of for ests. Research was also done on people's preferences, recreation modelling and recreation economics (Koch 1978, 1980, 1984 a, Koch & Jensen 1988). The aim of the project was to develop a better basis for political and adminis trative decisions in the field of forest recreation in Denmark. Even now this detailed study represents a rare if not unique case in the world because recreational use of most forest areas of the whole country (3/4 of all forest areas larger than 50 hectares) were inventoried. According to the results of the study, the annual number of forest visits has been estimated to be approximately 50 million (Koch 1978, 1980). This allows to a general conclusion that the recreational value of many forest areas in Denmark is far above their wood production value. The value assigned by the public to forest areas was calculated using consumer surplus estimates reached by Clawson's travel cost method. The other important non-timber forest use in Denmark is hunting. As much as 3,6 % of the population are hunters and nearly all forest areas in the country can be rented for hunting purposes. In addition, the losses caused by deer to wood production are significant (Koch 1984 b). A special area of mul tiple-use forestry research is the stress caused by outdoor recreation activi ties, especially orienteering, on game and other animals (Jeppesen 1984). 420 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries There are two non-timber uses in Denmark that are clearly of less impor tance in other Nordic countries. One is the production of Christmas trees and decoration greenery which has developed because of the good markets in nearby central European countries. The other is the protection function of for ests. As Denmark is a flat peninsula and a group of islands between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea, nearly all forests have protection functions as wind shelters. The establishment of dune plantations for protection against sand drift on the long west coast of Jutland has traditionally been given much emphasis in Danish forestry research. Christmas trees and decoration green ery production clearly reduce timber production and thus represent a real trade-off case in forest production. In many cases, forest greenery is privately produced and is a preferred choice because of good profitability. Due to the geography, land ownership history and the dominance of agri culture in land use, Denmark has many features in common with central European forestry. One of those is the traditional concern given to the man agement of cultural landscapes and nature conservation. Consequently, forest is a frequent element in the prevailing agricultural landscape of the country. As in other Nordic countries, the research related to landscape has mostly been done outside forestry research organizations. Besides the above mentioned main fields of research, also other studies in multiple use have been carried out from the seventies onwards. These have dealt with the theory behind multiple-use forestry (Helles 1977), the values of forestry for society (Helles et al. 1984), landscape aesthetics (Borup 1991), nature conservation (Naturen i skoven 1989, Naturpleje i skov 1989), cultural values (Thomsen 1988), advice on management for multiple values (Koch & Kristiansen 1991), and planning of multiple-use forestry (Kristiansen 1994). Recently, attention has been paid to economics of forest environment (e.g. Helles & Linddal 1994). Research organizations Due to the small economic importance of forestry in the national economy, forestry research is a relatively small research sector, which - as the Working Group for Forest Research (1989) stated - is closely related to other consider ably larger research fields (Forskning og formidling 1989). Therefore, the Working Group felt it necessary to ask whether there are sufficient grounds to maintain a separate organization for forestry research. However, it was con cluded that forestry in Denmark has many special features, which make it rational to have an independent Danish forestry research organization. Among those specialities, high emphasis was given to non-timber and non material aspects such as biological, environmental, cultural, historical, aes thetic and recreational values. The Working Group suggested that the existing relatively small research and development units of forest and landscape research should be merged 421 Multiple-use research into one institution. Consequently, three research institutes, the Danish Forest Experiment Station, the Danish Institute of Forest Technology, the Danish Institute of Park Technology, and some functions from two other organiza tions were rearranged in 1991 into a new research unit, the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute (Forskningscentret for Skov & Landskab). The institute is supervised by the Ministry of Agriculture. The aim of the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute is to carry out research, development and dissemination of knowledge for the benefit of forestry, including production of greenery and Christmas trees as well as park and landscape management. The institute attaches importance to multiple use of forests and landscape and to environmental conditions (Forskningscen tret... Undated). The organizational environment and the structure of the institute, includ ing subject groups, is presented in Figure 16.1. The most relevant research from the multiple-use point of view is done in the Department of Park and Landscape and the Department of Christmas Trees and Greenery. The research interests of the former are the following: re-establishment of natural conditions, park and landscape management, park and landscape mainte nance, urban ecology, composting, outdoor recreation and green tourism. The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University (Den Kgl. VeterinEer of Landbohojskole - KVL) has also a significant role in multiple-use forestry research. Forestry education and related research was carried out in the Unit of Forestry until the end of 1993. The Unit has contributed to the develop ment of the multiple-use forestry concept from the point of view of economic theory (e.g. Helles 1977, Helles et al. 1984). In the beginning of 1994, the Unit of Forestry was merged with the Units of Economy and Landscape to form a new entity called the Department of Economy, Forest and Landscape (Institut for okonomi, Skov og Landskab). The overall objective of the new Department is to strengthen the socioeco nomic and ecological information basis in management, planning, adminis tration and resource utilization in the fields of agriculture, horticulture, forestry and "open lands" (det äbne land). The research projects of the Department are divided into two groups: 1) economics of agriculture and 2) forest and landscape. The latter has seven priority areas with ongoing and planned projects (Strategi for forskning... 1993): 1) Landscape development and regulation in open land. 2) Economic, political and planning aspects of multiple-use forestry. 3) Expressions and basic ideas of landscape architecture. 4) Establishment and management of forests, green areas and nature reserves. 5) Interdependence of forest management, properties of wood, the value of wood and its industrial utilization. 6) System ecological, genetic and ecophysiological aspects of forestry and landscape management. 422 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 16.1 0rganizational chart of the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute. 423 Multiple-use research 7) Sustainable forestry and land-use management in developing countries with special emphasis on socioeconomic, political and biological aspects. The present situation is a kind of transition period during which the new objectives and working methods of the Department will be further developed. Presently, the three different units are still situated in different places. In future, most functions of the Department will be situated in one place. Fur thermore, the new Department has a cooperation agreement with the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute (DFLRI). This cooperation will be strengthened when the DFLRI will move to a new building in Horsholm. The new building will also accommodate forest and landscape researchers from the university (Strategi for forskning... 1993). 16.3 Finland In Finland, multiple-use research was started at the turn of the 1960 s and 19705. The first studies were initiated and carried out in the Faculty of Agri culture and Forestry of the University of Helsinki, in the Departments of Social Economics of Forestry, Silviculture and Forest Mensuration. A little later, research was also begun in the Finnish Forest Research Institute (Met säntutkimuslaitos - METLA) where the first multiple-use studies were car ried out in the Department of Forest Economics and the Department of Peat land Forestry. The first permanent multiple-use researcher position was established in 1972 at the Institute's Rovaniemi research station which is situ ated in northern Finland. Although multiple-use research was one of the priorities of the Finnish Forest Research Institute (FFRI) from the early seventies onwards, the resource base grew slowly during the first 15 years. It was not until 1988 that the first leading level multiple-use researcher position was established. This and the start of the Multiple-use Research Program in 1990 can be seen as decisive steps in giving multiple-use research a steady organizational status. In the following, two issues are of interest: why was multiple-use research initiated just at that time and why did it grow slowly during the first 10-15 years although the demands for such research were more than obvi ous? A major reason for beginning multiple-use research just at the turn to seventies was the heated discussion on the scenic, ecological and environ mental impacts of intensified silvicultural and forest improvement operations (Reunala & Heikinheimo 1987). The reason for the intensification of wood production was the actual and predicted wood shortages induced by large scale capacity increases in the forest industry in the 1950 s and 19605. Con flicts between forestry and the environmental movement were at that time unavoidable, and multiple-use research met an evident social demand. 424 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries The main reason for the slow and modest resources development can be found in the organizational rigidity of the Finnish Forest Research Institute, where - as perhaps in many other research organizations - new fields of research have difficulties in the establishment process unless organizational changes are made to facilitate reallocation of funds. Those organizational conditions were not created until 1988, although the legislation concerning FFRI was changed to include "research on different forest uses and protection of the environment" as early as in 1986. In 1983, a working group for multiple-use forestry was established to participate in the preparation of the Forest 2000 Programme, which was the national long-term plan for developing forestry and forest industries in Fin land. In its report, the group makes recommendations, for example, concern ing the development of multiple-use research and university education (Metsien moninaiskäytön... 1985). However, generally speaking the program did not take an active role in the promotion of multiple use (Saastamoinen 1987). The same holds true also for the monitoring and revision report which was published in 1992 (Metsä 2000... 1992, The representation of the revised... 1992). Although the reports discuss multiple-use and nature con servation, survey the environmental impacts of forestry and forest industries, and propose the introduction of Environmental Impact Assessment for forest improvement work, it can be concluded that, until recently, the official for estry institutions and administrations have been rather conservative and tim ber-minded in their policy concerning multiple-use forestry. In addition to the forestry organizations, the Ministry of the Environment, which was established in 1983, has had an active role in supporting multiple use. Its policy in regard to forests has included production of nature conserva tion programs and promotion of outdoor recreation. In 1985, the Ministry published a research program for outdoor recreation studies which resulted in an increase of related research in the Finnish Forest Research Institute and in the Nature Conservation Research Unit of the National Board of Waters and the Environment. An important document published by the Ministry of the Environment was the report on environmental policy in Finland (Environmental protec tion... 1988). The report contained background information for an OECD sur vey on environmental protection and policy in Finland (Environmental policies... 1988). The final OECD report, among other things, made recom mendations concerning multiple use and environmental forestry. Research organizations The primarily state-financed Finnish Forest Research Institute (FFRI) is one of the largest forestry research organizations in Europe. It carries out research in all fields of forestry. FFRI has good facilities for multiple use as well as for other forestry research. The two national parks in Lapland (Pyhätunturi and 425 Multiple-use research Figure 16.2 Locations of the Finnish Forest Research Institute. Pallas-Ounastunturi), other nature conservation areas and research forests located throughout the country, and the network of eight regional research stations, provide good possibilities for effective field work and close contacts with practical organizations and other research institutions (Figure 16.2). About one third of all researchers in FFRI are located in research stations. In 1990, a special research program was established for multiple-use research (Kuusipalo el al. 1989). The program gathered studies dealing with multiple use into one administrative unit, and a separate budget was provided for it. Nowadays it comes under the Department of Forest Resources, which 426 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 16.3 Structure of the Multiple-use Research Program 1990-1994 was created in 1991 as a result of the reorganization of FFRI. It has altogether 12 full-time researchers and some technical staff (Figure 16.3). The first Multiple-use Research Program of FFRI will be finished by the end of 1994. Right now a new research program is being planned. According to present plans, the new program will emphasize the integration aspect of multiple use. The main themes will be planning methods for multifunctional forestry, forest landscape, management of wilderness areas, and economics and sociology of recreation. The major locations for multiple-use research are the Joensuu research station in eastern Finland, the Rovaniemi research station in Lapland, and the headquarters of FFRI in Helsinki. In Helsinki, urban forestry and outdoor rec reation are two major fields of research. The focus of urban forestry is on sil viculture. In addition to the two above mentioned topics, studies are being carried out on public attitudes on forests including personal and cultural val ues. This research is supported by the University of Helsinki, because it has been possible to specialize in multiple use in the Department of Forest Ecol ogy from 1991 onwards. The coordinator of the Multiple-use Research Program of FFRI is located at the Joensuu research station, where the main areas of research are forest berries and mushrooms and planning of multiple-use forestry. The Joensuu 427 Multiple-use research research station also benefits from its location on the university campus just beside the Faculty of Forestry of the University of Joensuu. The Rovaniemi research station near the Arctic Circle is the largest research station of FFRI. It is located in an environment where non-timber forest uses have traditionally had special importance in regional economy and where the bulk of nature conservation and other protection areas are to be found. Its present multiple-use research topics deal with reindeer husbandry, game management, nature conservation, wilderness areas, recreation, tourism and environmental economics (e.g. Naskali et ai. 1993, Sepponen & Lohiniva 1994). Rovaniemi is also the home town of a few other research institutes con cerned with northern nature and people. The most important from the multi ple-use point of view is the Arctic Centre of the University of Lapland, which actively participates in international cooperation. The Centre is in charge of the national wilderness research program, which is a co-operative umbrella type program bringing together many smaller projects in several research institutes and universities (Hallikainen & Jokimäki 1992). The Nature Conservation Research Unit of the National Board for Waters and the Environment is engaged in environmental research related to water resources, nature conservation and biodiversity. The Unit coordinates the multidisciplinary research program called "The Finnish Biodiversity Research Programme" (Jäppinen & Väisänen 1993). The program involves researchers from various organizations from all over the country. It also coop erates with FFRI. There are two faculties providing academic education in forestry sciences in Finland: the older one at the University of Helsinki, and the younger one at the University of Joensuu. The Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry at the Uni versity of Helsinki has educated professional foresters since 1908 and has had a decisive position in initiating multiple-use research in Finland. The first doctoral dissertation specializing in multiple-use forestry was approved in the Department of Social Economics of Forestry in 1982 (Saastamoinen 1982). Presently it is possible to specialize in integrated forest management or in some subfield of multiple-use forestry (e.g. landscape management, urban forestry) only in the Department of Forest Ecology. Since 1991, stu dents have been allowed to compile their own study plans in which they can include courses from various departments of the Faculty, from other faculties and universities, and also from abroad. The Faculty of Forestry at the University of Joensuu was established in 1982. The faculty has five major subjects, of which in two subjects - in silvi culture and in forest management planning - the students can specialize in multiple-use forestry and environmental management. There is also an increasing body of research in the field, mainly on the silvicultural aspects of multiple use, forest landscape simulation, forest management planning, and on the economics of multiple use, with some extensions also to tropical for estry. The first dissertation written by the faculty's "own nursling" dealing 428 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries with forest regeneration and multiattribute utility theory had a multiple-use dimension (Kangas 1992). A position of senior lecturer was established in 1988 for multiple use and environmental management. Now there are plans to change this to a professorship. A new international forest research organization was established in Joen suu in eastern Finland in 1993. The European Forest Institute (EFI) is an independent, non-governmental organization founded by 12 universities and forestry research institutes from ten European countries (Illi 1994). The prior ity areas for the research and development projects at the EFI are the follow ing: 1) forest sustainability, 2) forestry and possible global climate change, 3) structural changes in markets for forest products (wood and non-wood) and services, 4) forest policy analysis, and 5) forest sector information services and research methodology. The present projects of the Institute include a comparative study of forest biodiversity in Finland and northwest Russia and a study of the use of forest resources and environment related attitudes in five European countries and parts of the USA (EFI News 1994). Evaluation of the Multiple-use research program of FFRI FFRI ordered an international evaluation of the new research program in 1991. It is the first evaluation specifically focused on multiple-use research in the Nordic countries (Driver & Peterson 1992). Because the recommenda tions and conclusions by the evaluators may have some validity in other Nor dic countries as well, they deserve to be cited. Recommendations are not arranged in any order of priority and are presented here in a shortened form: - Multiple-use forestry is a rapidly growing concern throughout the world and is of critical importance for Finland. Therefore its research should be expanded and strengthened. - The program should include both research of non-timber products and of the problems of joint production and integrated ecosystem management. - Systematic and effective research planning should include 1) a mission statement 2) problem analyses and 3) detailed study plans; these three stages should be a part of a formalized planning process that includes peer review and executive approval by administrative officers. - Research teams should be formed; many of the researchers are scattered in different locations in Finland and isolated from like-minded colleagues. - If funding can not be increased in future years, serious consideration should be given to reducing the scope of the program to avoid spreading resources too thinly. - Some of the most important research problems involve social, economic and behavioral science. This is seldom recognized by traditional forest sci ences. This problem exists worldwide, not just in Finland. - FFRI should be more responsive to the public than it has been until now. 429 Multiple-use research Future challenges There is no doubt that multiple-use forestry and research will become more important in the 21st century. There are many reasons for this: continuous urbanization of society, increasing environmental awareness of people, changes in forest ownership structure and the probably decreasing level of stumpage prices which will reduce the opportunity costs of non-timber uses. The future membership of Finland in the European Union is expected to increase tourism and recreational demands on Finnish forests and other nature resources. Also, rationalization of wood harvesting and forest indus tries, and reduction in the employment of foresters and forestry engineers, seem to strengthen the change of attitudes in forestry organizations in favour of multiple use and environmental forestry. The same kind of pressures are coming from consumers' demands. Environmentally sound forest operations are becoming assets of competitiveness for forest industry products in the hard world of international trade. A further evidence of the ongoing trend is that at the end of 1994, FFRI made a decision to change the vacant professor ship of business economics of forestry to that of environmental economics which includes multiple-use forestry. 16.4 Iceland Early destruction of woodland due to charcoal making and sheep grazing has caused massive soil erosion and loss of other vegetative cover in Iceland. Today only about 1 % of the land area is covered by birch dominated wood land (Blöndal 1991). Because of this, protection and land reclamation have been the major objectives of forestry in the country. From the multiple-use point of view, the Icelandic case is therefore sharply different from other Nor dic countries and offers a highly interesting insight on some specific multi ple-use problems. Due to the decreasing number of sheep in the eighties, it has been possi ble to fence off several areas formerly grazed by sheep to protect the existing birch remnants and for regeneration. These enclosures have considerable value as recreation areas for the urban population. In addition, a pilot project has been initiated in sparsely vegetated and barren areas by the Icelandic For estry Association to create small birch forests. Although forestry has been practised since the turn of the century, no for mal research work was carried out until the 19505, when the Forest Service appointed a forestry graduate to initiate silvicultural research. The Forest Service Research Station was officially opened in 1967. Gradually it has expanded and become a very active institute (Loftsson 1991) (.Figure 16.4). Research on natural regeneration and other establishment techniques for birch is now one of the research priorities of the Iceland Forestry Service (Blöndal 1991). Other topics are the problems of choice and introduction of 430 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Figure 16.4 Organizational charts of the Iceland Forestry Service and the Iceland Forest Research Station. exotic species and improvement of the classification of the land according to wood production potential. While forestry research is concentrated on solving the problems of refor estation and land reclamation, and therefore can hardly be interpreted as mul tiple use research as such, it is anyway important to notice the multitude of benefits expected from reforestation (Blöndal 1991): soil protection, higher grazing value of vegetation under tall forest, minor products for specific needs of the community and a more desirable environment for recreation, camping sites and summerhouses. 16.5 Norway Norwegian people are known among the Scandinavians for their enthusiasm for the outdoor life. Various surveys indicate that at least two thirds of the pop ulation enjoy some kind of outdoor recreation in forests at some time during the year (Aasetre 1992). The first studies in forestry which can be regarded as 431 Multiple-use research belonging to multiple-use research were mainly focused on outdoor recrea tion (e.g. Strand 1967, Haakenstad 1972, Hofstad 1976 a, Hofstad 1976 b). Recreation pressures were also the major cause for the most comprehen sive multiple-use study at its time in Scandinavia. The aim of the study was to analyze and plan the combined recreational and forestry utilization of Oslomarka, an area of nearly 1,700 km*" situated in the capital city of Oslo and surrounding municipalities, and serving the recreational needs of about 15 % of Norwegians (Hofstad 1976 a, Svendsrud 1977). The results of the Oslomarka studies and discussions led to a more restrictive forest legislation and to more consultative and participatory approach in planning and decision making concerning the area (Opheim 1984). Hofstad's (1976 b) study on the Oslomarka conflicts was the first dissertation on multiple-use economics in Norway. As a whole, the Oslomarka study can be considered to be the first exam ple of a comprehensive and multifocused area-specific forestry study, the results of which were used in real economic and practical decision making. However, after this intensive and comprehensive research period in Oslo marka, multiple-use issues received less attention in Norwegian forestry research. Multiple-use research was not made part of the institutional frame work of forestry research or of university organizations. In the 1980 s, biologists entered the scene and firmly demanded research to save endangered species in forests. Consequently, today research related to multiple-use forestry deals also with biological questions. Research organizations There are two major institutions carrying out multiple-use forestry research: the Norwegian Forest Research Institute (Norsk Institutt for Skogforskning - NISK) and the Agricultural University of Norway (Norges landbrukshog skole - NLH) with its Department of Forestry. Multiple-use research, espe cially within the Oslomarka study mentioned above, was an important part of forestry research activities at the Agricultural University of Norway in the 19705. The Norwegian Forest Research Institute was not yet very much engaged in multiple-use research at that time. It concentrated more on forest ecology and various aspects of wood production. A radical change came about by the mid-1980s. Environmental and mul tiple-use related studies now play a substantial part in the activities and image of the Norwegian Forest Research Institute. The Institute coordinates a major joint research program "Forest ecology and multiple-use forestry". Furthermore, it has been decided to integrate multiple-use aspects in all rele vant research projects of the institute, besides carrying out specially dedicated studies (Strategisk plan 1993, Norwegian Forest... 1994). NISK also has the Hirkjolen experimental area to be used as a demonstration area for ecological 432 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries relationships and multiple-use of forests. It is situated in montane forest about 280 km north of Oslo (Solbraa 1990, Hirkjolen... 1993). The Department of Forestry of the Agricultural Universtity of Norway was established in 1898. It offers normally two lines of specialization, namely silviculture and forest resource economics and management. During the last 40-50 years, research has become an integral part of its activity (Depart ment... Undated). The present research of the Department includes studies on alternative silvicultural methods, socioeconomic consequences of multiple use, and political processes and means of carrying out multiple use (Virkom hetsplan 1994). In 1990, NISK and NLH with its Department of Forestry entered into close administrative and professional cooperation under the name SkogForsk. The aim of the reform was to increase scientific competence in the fields of biological, technical and social forestry research and education. For example, the staff of the Institute will be involved in teaching in NLH (Formal, organ isasjon... 1994, Strategisk plan 1993). To streamline future research, Skog- Forsk has published project planning guidelines (Prosjektkvalitet... 1993). The third major institute participating in multiple use and related research is the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (Norsk Institutt for Naturfors kning - NINA). It was established in 1988 by the Ministry of the Environ ment. NINA is divided into five research divisions: mammalian ecology, terrestrial ecology, conservation biology, aquatic ecology, and the East Nor way Division. In addition there is a research program for outdoor recreation (Norwegian Institute... 1993). From the multiple-use point of view, the most important research topics are conservation of natural habitats, species preser vation, game ecology, and outdoor recreation. NINA's outdoor recreation program has been designed to provide infor mation on the following: 1) What determines the recreational habits of the general public? 2) How do Norwegians as well as foreigners feel about meas ures introduced to organize recreational activities? 3) How do outdoor people react to environmental encroachment? 4) What are the effects of official regu lations of outdoor recreational activities? (NINA... undated). The program was evaluated in 1993 and it was decided to continue research on the man/nature dichotomy, based on a broader social science approach, and by drawing more direct connections with ecology. Other future activities include research on Arctic issues; NINA opened its own Department of Arctic ecology in Tromso in March 1994. Also, Norway's cultural heritage research will become part of NINA's organizational structure in 1994 (Annual report 1994). The "Forest ecology and multiple-use forestry" -research program was established in 1989 and will be completed by the end of 1994. It is a joint effort of NLH, NINA and NISK and the Universities of Bergen, Trondheim and Oslo. The aim of the program is to collect and publish new ecological and economic information for deploying of multiple-use forestry in Norway. It will focus especially on the impacts of the fragmentation of forest structure Multiple—use research 433 on flora and fauna, and the economic consequences of multiple-use adapta tions. The program includes 15 projects, the results of which will be pub lished in a handbook once the program is completed (Skogsokologi... 1992, Ärsberetning... 1994). Future plans and challenges Norwegian research policy has come under intensive scrutiny in the 19905. Evaluations and action plans have been produced in various fields of research, including forestry (e.g. Forskning... 1992/93, Gornitzka 1992, okt verdiskapning... 1994). The Research Council of Norway states that environ mental aspects and the relationship between timber production and other uses of forests will be central themes in forestry research in the future. The Coun cil's report groups the most relevant research areas into three categories: 1) forest and environment, 2) forestry and industry, and 3) forest and society. It is recommended that research be carried out in research programs, and should consist of theoretical research, applied research and development work (okt verdiskapning... 1994). 16.6 Sweden Early multiple-use related research in Sweden was mainly initiated and car ried out by professor Dr. Lars Kardell in the Department of Environmental Forestry in Uppsala. Being from a silviculturist background, it was natural for him to orientate into the problems of the complicated relationships between timber production and other forest uses. The early publications of the Depart ment of Environmental Forestry dealt widely with berries and mushrooms, recreation, landscape management, nature management and conservation in forestry. A nationwide inventory of forest berries in Sweden was carried out in connection with the national forest survey from 1974 to 1977. It was the first of its kind in the sphere of minor forest products in the Nordic countries (Eriksson et al. 1979). Hultman (1983ab) was the first to write a doctoral dis sertation on people's perceptions of forest landscapes in 1983. Since then, landscape management and landscape preferences have been given much emphasis in Swedish research. Recent research in the Department of Environ mental Forestry has concentrated on forest recreation in different locations, nature perceptions and landscape management in forestry. There are also other departments in the Swedish University of Agricul tural Sciences carrying out multiple-use research and education. The Depart ment of Landscape Planning has been engaged in forest landscape research. The studies have been dealing with stand structures and their development, and with the problems of urban forestry. Axelsson Lindgren (1990) has inves- 434 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries tigated the perception of forest stands from recreational and landscape plan ning points of view. The most traditional way to utilize forests is no doubt by hunting. Even now, hunting enjoys a high status in practical forestry and education. The Department of Wildlife Ecology has been pioneering in flora and fauna stud ies. The Department of Ecology and Environmental Research is engaged in systems ecology of forests but is also studying nature protection problems. The Department of Silviculture has been mainly focusing on plantation for estry and the effects of silvicultural treatments on stand and site. Recently, increasing research effort has been devoted to alternative (without clearcut ting) methods of silviculture, which could be used especially in areas having special importance from a multiple-use point of view (Falck 1991). Also sil vicultural problems of urban forests have been covered. There is a shortage of knowledge and practical experience of alternative regimes of silviculture, mainly because from the early 1950 s alternative man agement practices were restricted by legislation. Now, the official forest pol icy is changing from strict governmental control aiming at highest possible timber production to a more flexible attitude to the use of forest land (Falck 1991). The Department of Forest Economics in Umeä has been active in multi ple-use research. The first doctoral dissertation related to multiple-use for estry in Sweden was Leif Mattsson's work on forest history and on the relationship between forestry and reindeer husbandry. It was published in 1981. Later on, research has concentrated on policy aspects of multiple use and environmental forestry, environmental economics and economics of hunting. For example, environmental protection in Swedish forestry was the topic of a dissertation by Katarina Eckerberg (1990). Research organizations In Sweden, forestry research and the university education of foresters have since 1915 been carried out in the Royal College of Forestry (Skogshögsko lan). The College was merged with the National Forestry Research Institute (Statens skogsforskningsinstitut) in 1962. In 1977, the College and research activities were joined together with the Royal College of Agriculture and the Royal College of Veterinary to form the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet). Forestry became one of the three faculties of the University (von Segebaden 1978). The Faculty of Forestry is responsible for most academic forest education and for about 70 % of forestry research. The remaining research is done by the Forestry Research Institute of Sweden, other universities, companies, and other smaller institutions. The faculty is spread over four locations. Education and research is practised in Umeä, Garpenberg and Uppsala. Recently, a research unit in Alnarp has begun forest and landscape research in southern 435 Multiple-use research Figure 16.5 Locations of the Faculty of Forestry of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sci ences. Sweden. The faculty has six experimental areas from Gällivare in the north to Halmstadt in the south. In addition, the faculty has three separate units for the training of forest technicians. It is also responsible for information and exten sion activities (Figure 16.5) (Bäckström 1990). The research of the Faculty is divided into five research programs, each of which includes research projects from several departments. They are 1) economics, 2) inventory and forest resources, 3) forest site yield, 4) forest technology and wood utilization, and 5) nature and the environment. Most of the multiple-use forestry research is done in the nature and environment research program, the aim of which is to "gain knowledge on and to develop methods for production, management, preservation and utilization of those utilities and environmental values which, in addition to timber production, are 436 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries of general importance for land use". The program includes studies on the fol lowing topics (The Faculty... 1991): - Basic knowledge on ecosystems, species and gene resources and principles for their continuing care and preservation. - Production of environmental values and utilities such as wild game, ber ries, mushrooms, recreation areas and cultural landscape. - The protective role of forests against erosion, wind damage, etc. - Consequence evaluations, e.g. of new silvicultural methods. The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (Skogforsk - Stiftelsen Skogs brukets Forskningsinstitut) was established by merging two small research institutes, the Forest Operations Institute (Forskningsstiftelsen Skogsarbeten) and the Institute of Forest Improvement (Institut för Skogsförbättring) in 1992. The new institute is situated in Uppsala. It is financed by forest compa nies, foundations, the state, and the National Federation of Forest Owners. Its aim is to promote economically profitable and ecologically sound forestry (Skogsägarnas Riksförbund... 1994, Skogforsk... 1993). Future plans and challenges The Faculty of Forestry of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences presented the program "Swedish Forest Research to the Year 2000" in 1989 (Svensk skogsforskning... 1989). It proposes a significant increase in research funds and resources for thirteen specified study areas of strategic importance. Although the concept of multiple use is not explicitly mentioned in that con text, the substance of the following two research areas is especially signifi cant from multiple-use point of view: 1. Production and environment. Most forest areas meant for economically important wood production also contain recreational and environmental values. Therefore, research which integrates production and environmental aspects will have a high priority in the coming years. 2. Nature and environment. This area focuses on the environmental impacts of forest operations caused, for example, by the drainage of peatlands and by the planting of exotic species. Natural forests and the conservation of forest flora and fauna will be studied. The faculty has also set up lists of rare animals and plants threatened in forest ecosystems, and this work will be developed. Other strategic areas are the following: 3) production optimization, nutri ent leakage, vitality fertilizations, 4) air pollution, 5) alternative silvicultural methods, 6) biotechnology 7) wood quality, 8) long-term field experiments, 9) forests and energy, 10) engineering and forest technology, 11) forests in national and private economy, 12) forests in a historical perspective, and 13) 437 Multiple-use research forests in a global perspective. Some of these other strategic areas also have linkages with multiple-use research (Svensk skogsforskning... 1989, The Faculty... 1991). Another recent research initiative further illustrates the trends in forestry research. It has been proposed that a research program on natural resources and environmental economics related to area-based industries be carried out as a joint effort of several institutes: the Department of Forest Economics (Urnea) and the Department of Economics (Uppsala) at the Swedish Univer sity of Agricultural Sciences and the Department of Economics and the Department of Political Science at the University of Umeä, the Swedish Uni versity of Commerce and the Beijer International Institute of Ecological Eco nomics (Stockholm) (Mattsson et ai. 1991). The proposed program consists of two main studies with two subprob lems: 1. A choice and balancing problem in forest utilization la. Socioeconomic analysis of the multiple benefits of forests The study includes research on methodologies to quantify non-market for est benefits, the value of non-market benefits in timber production forests, the value of forests for tourism, the existence value of plants and forest wildlife, and the costs caused by adjusting timber production activities in order to produce and maintain also other forest values. Finally, with the help of the attained research results, synthesizing analyses will be done. lb. Control methods in forest policy This substudy examines the community level planning and decision mak ing for nature conservation and outdoor recreation in forestry and agricul tural lands near cities. Another problem area is the effectiveness of the eco nomic ruling methods (e.g. environmental fees for chlorine emissions) in forest industries and the distribution of impacts of the fees on environment, industry, forest owners and sawmills. 2. Discharge problems in the watershed areas of the Baltic Sea 2a. Willingness to pay, cost effectiveness and socioeconomic consequences The substudy mainly deals with the problems of water resources manage ment in the industries influencing the Baltic Sea. It also examines, among other things, the role of agriculture and forestry in watersheds. 2b. The economic consequences of the biodiversity changes The proposed research agenda of this study is concentrated on the ecology and economics of biodiversity conservation. It includes three major issues: the value of biodiversity, the driving forces behind biodiversity loss and the 438 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries elements of a strategy for biodiversity conservation. These topics also characterize the present trends in other Nordic countries (e.g. Helles & Linddal 1994). The Faculty of Forestry of the Swedish University of Agricultural Sci ences produced a discussion paper for the planning of future research. It is a collection of researchers' ideas concerning the development of research. Mul tiple-use is present to some extent but most of the proposals are dealing with biological, economic or technical aspects of timber production, and wood processing and marketing (Elmberg & Sallnäs 1993). 16.7 Research for the future The increasing importance of non-wood benefits and multiple use has been stated so many times during the last two decades that one should perhaps remain somewhat skeptical about them. Science has never been very good at predicting sudden, structural changes in economy, politics or social values. One should not exclude the repulsive possibilities of chaos, disorder and dis integration with their unaccountable consequences on forest uses and forest benefits. However, while not forgetting a doomsday scenario, all available evi dence is for a continuous trend of increasing weight being given to multiple use forestry compared to wood production oriented forestry, and for changes between the weights of forest uses composing multiple use (e.g. Koch & Kennedy 1991, Opheim 1992, Krott & Zimmerman 1992, Driver & Peterson 1992). Recent and ongoing changes in forest and environmental legislation of the Nordic and other countries reflect the new values and demands. A recent example is the new forest policy of Sweden, which is based on extensive research and forward-looking analyses (Skogspolitiken inför... 1992). It places the maintaining of biodiversity on a par with the traditional production objective to direct future Swedish forest policy. New challenges and demands for forestry research are strengthened by legislation. Problems are derived from changing economic structures, chang ing values of people, and from the changing natural environment. New prob lems also appear from the logic of the scientific progress itself: a solution for one problem may generate new questions to be answered, or offer resources to be allocated for research in new fields. In each Nordic country, there are, no doubt, even in the future certain, nationally, regionally or locally specific research needs, which should be anticipated and met in due course of time. These needs can only be identified in each country. It is possible that a major part of future research in each country will be directed to country-specific problems. In this article, the focus of interest is on those future areas of research which one can assume to be of similar interest in most Nordic countries. All 439 Multiple-use research these countries have reached about the same level of economic and social development, and share the problems in forest use which are typical to all industrial and urbanized societies. They have relatively similar traditions in forest use and everyman's rights. Some of the challenges for the remaining years of this century are by no means new. Societies still need a theoretical basis and methodology to meas ure and compare the benefits of forests - and sacrifices needed to attain those benefits - in a rational and consistent way. Similarly, there is a continuing need to improve and enlarge knowledge of how to attain the desired benefits from our forests. Whether this science (or art) is simply called silviculture, ecosystem engineering, ecosystems manage ment or knowledge of multi-commodity production functions does not mat ter. What matters is the increasing need to manage forest and related ecosystems so that the growing and diversifying needs of people and societies could be sustainably and cost-efficiently met. It is also likely that multiple-use research will be more integrated than earlier with other and more traditional fields of forestry research: forest ecol ogy, silviculture, entomology, and so on. On the other hand, integration will occur with sciences of other fields as well: such as sociology, economics, political science, landscape aesthetics and wildlife biology. The challenge is evident: climatic change will affect as much multiple benefits of forests as it does forest ecosystems and wood production. With forest ecosystem changes, everything changes: non-wood products, ecosys tem influences and services, landscape values, recreation environment and biodiversity values. Whatever will be the schedule and actual organizational process, the economy and politics are likely to support further integration in Europe. The Nordic countries, especially Sweden, Finland and Norway, have been tradi tional suppliers of sawnwood and pulp and paper products to other parts of Europe. What may be expected is that the forests and other natural environ ments of northern Europe will increasingly be in demand for the recreational needs of the heavily populated urban centres of the rest of Europe. To what extent is recreational demand from outside likely to increase, and what are the interests and hopes of central European travellers for northern forests? What are the policy changes needed to adequately respond to the economic, social and environmental problems which are likely to arise? For example, what will be the fate of the traditional Right of Public Access in Scandinavian forests? All Scandinavian countries participate actively in development coopera tion. In many developing countries, the multiple benefits of forests have tra ditionally been, and will continue to be, economically and socially comparable to wood, even if the figures in national accounts may give another picture. Future Nordic forestry research should assist developing countries to assess and develop the non-timber products and services of the forests and also support developing ways to integrate wood and non-wood 440 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries uses of forests for the benefit of people while sustaining and even strengthen ing the resource base. The latter issues should remind us that the challenges for research in mul tiple-use forestry are not only increasingly urgent but also increasingly uni versal. Forestry research will have growing role not only in saving the forests of our planet but also in promoting wiser management of them. Finally, one should recognize that wiser management necessarily refers to something that can be called socially optimal. This involves the numerous conflicting, and difficult to treat, but nevertheless real, social values. 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Economic and sociological analysis as a basis of the multiple use planning for Oslomarka. Proceedings of the XVI lUFRO World Congress, Division IV. p. 143-152. 442 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Hofstad, O. 1976 b. Konflikter ved flersidig bruk av skog. (Conflicts in multiple-use of forests.) Dissertation. Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Forest Economics. 173 pp. (In Norwegian.) Hultman, S.-G. 1983 a. Allmänhetens bedomning av skogsmiljöers lämplighet för friluftsliv. 1. Bedömning pä plats eller i bild? Summary: Public judgement of forest environments as recreation areas. 1. Judgement on site or from photos. Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 27. 97 pp. Hultman, S.-G. 1983 b. Allmänhetens bedomning av skogsmiljöers lämplighet för friluftsliv. 2. En rikstäckande enkät. Summary: Public judgement of forest environments as recreation areas. 2. A national survey. Sveriges lantbruksuni versitet, Avdelningen för landskapsvärd, Rapport 28. 91 pp. Hytönen, M. 1992. Metsien monikäytön tutkimus Suomessa 1970-1990: tiivistelmä bibliografia. Multiple-use forestry research in Finland 1970-1990: an anno tated bibliography. Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 430. 395 pp. (Partly in English.) Hytönen, M. 1995. Origins, evolution and significance of the multiple-use concept. In: Hytönen, M. (ed.). Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries. The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki, p. 43-66. Illi, A. 1994. European Forest Institute studies Europe's forests and forest policy. Paperi ja puu/Paper and Timber 76(1): 1-2. Jäppinen, J.-P. & Väisänen, R. 1993. Luonnon monimuotoisuuden tutkimusohjelma LUMO. (Biodiversity Research Programme LUMO.) Väliraportti 31.5.1993. Vesi-ja ympäristöhallituksen monistesarja Nro 441. 113 pp. (In Finnish.) Jeppesen, J.L. 1984. Human disturbance of roe deer and red deer: preliminary results. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). 1984. Multiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Insti tuti Forestalls Fenniae 120: 113-118. Kangas, J. 1992. Metsikön uudistamisketjun valinta: monitavoitteiseen hyötyteoriaan perustuva päätöksentekomalli. Summary: Choosing the regeneration chain in a forest stand: a decision analysis model based on multi-attribute utility the ory. University of Joensuu, Publications in Sciences 24. 230 pp. Koch, N.E. 1978. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. I del. Befolkningens anven delse af landets skove. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part I: The use of the country's forests by the population. Det Forstlige Forsogsvaesen i Danmark, vol. 35: 285^451. Koch, N.E. 1980. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. II del. Anvendelsen af skov ene, regionalt betragtet. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part II: The use of forests considered regionally. Det Forstlige Forsogsvassen i Danmark, vol. 37: 73-383. Koch, N.E. 1984. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. 11l del. Anvendelsen af skov ene, lokalt betragtet. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part III: The use of forests considered locally. Det Forstlige Forsogsvsesen i Danmark, vol. 39: 121-362. Koch, N.E. 1984 a. Project "Forest and Folk": a summary. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hult man S.-G., Koch, N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). Multiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120: 44—45. 443 Multiple-use research Koch, N.E. 1984 b. Multiple-use forestry: Danish statistics. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S.-G., Koch N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). Multiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120: 33-38. Koch, N.E. & Jensen, F.S. 1988. Skovenes friluftsfunktion i Danmark. IV del. Befol kningens onsker til skovenes og det äbne lands udformning. Summary: Forest recreation in Denmark. Part IV: Preferences of the population. Det Forstlige Forsogsvaesen i Danmark, vol. 41: 243-516. Koch, N.E. & Kennedy J.J. 1991. Multiple-use forestry for social values. Ambio 20(7): 330-333. Koch, N.E. & Kristiansen, L. 1991. Flersidigt skovbrug: et idekatalog. (Multiple-use forestry: a handbook of ideas.) Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. 39 pp. (In Danish.) Kristiansen, L. 1994. Planlasgning af flersidig skovdrift. (Planning of multiple-use forestry.) Forskningscentret for Skov & Landskab, Lyngby. Manuscript. (In Danish.) Krott, M. & Zimmerman, W. 1992. From deforestation to air pollution: new chal lenges for sustained yield policy. In: Gundermann, E. (ed.). Sustained yield: historical, economic and political aspects. Proceedings of interdivisional and divisional sessions of Division 6 and 4. lUFRO Centennial Berlin-Eber swalde, Germany 31.8^1.9.1992. Kuusipalo, J., Reunala, A., Salo, K. & Sepponen, P. 1989. Metsien monikäytön tut kimusohjelma: kokonaissuunnitelma 1990-1994. (Multiple-use research pro gram: plan for 1990-1994.) Metsäntutkimuslaitos, Joensuu. 47 pp. (In Finn ish.) Loftsson, J. 1993. Forest development in Iceland. In: Alden, J., Mastrantonio, J.L. & Odum, S. (eds.). Forest development in cold climates. Plenum Press, New York. p. 453—461. Mattsson, L., Petrini, F., Johansson, P.-O, Löfgren, K.-G. & Mäler, K.-G. 1991. Naturresurs- och miljöekonomi i samband med areella näringar: ett förslag till forskningsprogram. (Natural resources and environmental economics in con nection with livelihoods: a proposal for a research program.) 23 pp. (In Swed ish.) Metsä 2000 -ohjelman tarkistustoimikunnan mietintö. (Report of the revising com mittee of Forest 2000 Programme.) 1992. Maa- ja metsätalousministeriö, Komiteamietintö 1992:5. 112 pp. (In Finnish.) Metsien moninaiskäytön työryhmän raportti. (Report of the multiple-use forestry working group.) 1985. Talousneuvosto, Metsä 2000-ohjelmajaosto, Helsinki. 59 pp. (In Finnish.) Moen, H.O. 1992. Norsk institutt for skogforskning: organisasjon, ledelse og samar beid. (Norwegian Forest Research Institute: organization, leadership and cooperation.) In: NISK: Norsk institutt for skogforskning: 75 är. (NISK: Nor wegian Forest Research Institute: 75 years). NISK, Rapport fra Skogforsk 12. p. 5-13. (In Norwegian.) Naskali, A., Ovaskainen, V. & Sepponen, P. 1993. Ympäristötaloustiede monikäytön tutkimusohjelmassa. (Environmental economics in the Multiple-use Research Program.) Metsäntutkimuslaitos, Rovaniemi. 30 pp. (In Finnish.) 444 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Naturen i skoven. (Nature in forest.) 1989. Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. (In Danish.) Naturpleje i skov. (Nature management in forest.) 1989. Skov- og Naturstyrelsen, Hersholm. (In Danish.) NINA: Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. Undated. NINA, Trondheim. 10 pp. Norwegian Forest Research Institute. 1994. Norwegian Forest Research Institute, As. 14 pp. (Folder.) Norwegian Institute for Nature Research. 1993. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Trondheim. 15 pp. okt verdiskapning fra skog. Skogbruk og skogindustri: perspektiver, utfordninger og omräder for forskning. (Increased value from the forest. Forestry and forest industry: perspectives, challenges and topics for research.) 1994. Norges Fors kningsräd, Oslo. 40 pp. (In Norwegian.) Opheim, T. 1984. Notes on the Oslomarka. In: Saastamoinen, 0., Hultman, S .-G., Koch N.E. & Mattsson, L. (eds.). Multiple-use forestry in the Scandinavian countries. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 120: 39^43. Opheim, T. 1992. The demand on research in forest economics from the policy mak ers' point of view. Proceedings of the biennal meeting of the Scandinavian Society of Forest Economics, Gausdal, Norway, April 1991. Scandinavian Forest Economics 33: 5-14. Prosjektkvalitet ved SkogForsk. (Quality of projects in SkogForsk.) 1993. Norsk institutt for skogforskning/Institutt for skogfag, As. 32 pp. (In Norwegian.) The representation of the revised Forest 2000 Program: Finnish forest policy in the 1 990'5. 1992. Finnish Forestry Association, Helsinki. 26 pp. Reunala, A. & Heikinheimo, M. 1987. Taistelu metsistä: voimaperäinen metsätalous Suomessa ja muissa maissa. (The fight for the forests: intensive forestry in Finland and other countries.) Kirjayhtymä, Helsinki. 188 pp. (In Finnish.) Saastamoinen, O. 1982. Economics of multiple-use forestry in the Saariselkä forest and fell area. Communicationes Instituti Forestalis Fenniae 104. 102 pp. Saastamoinen, O. 1987. Multiple use and the Forest 2000 -programme. In: Hän ninen, R. & Selby, A. (eds.). Proceedings of the biennal meeting of the Scan dinavian Society of Forest Economics, Porvoo, Finland, May 1987. Scandina vian Forest Economics 29: 39-47. von Segebaden, G. 1978. Förord. (Foreword.) In: Skogshögskolan 150 är: problem och ideer i svensk skogbruk 1828-1978. (College of Forestry 150 years: prob lems and ideas in Swedish forestry 1828-1978.) Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Almänna skrifter nr 2. (In Swedish.) Sepponen, P. & Lohiniva, S. 1994. Luontomatkailu: uusi tutkimuskohde. (Nature tourism: a new research object.) Metsäntutkimuslaitoksen tiedonantoja 488: 113-122. (In Finnish.) Skogforsk. 1993. Skogforsk, Redogörelse 8. Backpage information. Skogokologi og flersidig skogbruk: et tverrfaglig forskningsprogram. (Forest ecol ogy and multiple-use forestry: a multidisciplinary research program.) 1992. Norsk institutt for skogforskning, As. 4 pp. (In Norwegian.) Skogsägarnas Riksförbund: näringspolitisk bokslut. (The National Federation of For est Owners: business policy summary.) 1994. In: Skogsäret 1993-94. (Forest 445 Multiple-use research year 1993-94.) Skogsägarnas Riksförbund, Stockholm, p. 82-85. (In Swed ish.) Skogspolitiken inför 2000 -talet: huvudbetänkande av 1990 ars skogspolitiska köm mitte. (Forest policy for the 21st century: main report of the 1990 forest policy committee.) 1992. Jordbruksdepartmentet, Statens offentliga utredningar, SOU 1992:76. 343 pp. (In Swedish.) Solbraa, K. 1990. Hirkjolen Forsoksomräde. Summary: Hirkjolen Experimental Area. Norsk institutt for skogforskning, Rapport 7. 27 pp. Strand, H. 1967. okonomiske synspunkter pä rekreasjon. (Recreation from an eco nomic viewpoint). Meddelelser fra det Norske Skogforseksvesen 22(84): 161-187. (In Norwegian.) Strategi for forskning ved Institut for okonomi, Skov og Landskab. (Strategy for the research in the Institute of Economy, Forest and Landscape.) 1993. Den Kgl. Veterinasr- of Landbohojskole, Frederiksberg. 41 pp. (In Danish.) Strategisk plan 1993-1996. (Strategic plan 1993-1996.) 1993. Norsk Insitutt for Skogforskning, As. 10 pp. (In Norwegian.) Svendsrud, A. 1977. Utnytting av et skogsomräde til konkurrerende formal. (Utiliza tion of a forested area for competing purposes.) Norges landbrukshogskole. As. 24 pp. (In Norwegian.) Svensk skogsforskning mot är 2000. (Swedish forestry research towards the year 2000.) 1989. Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet, Skogsvetenskapliga fakulteten. Rapport 8. 177 pp. (In Swedish.) Thomsen, A. 1988. Skovens fortid i fremtiden. (The past of forest in future.) Skov og Naturstyrelsen, Horsholm. (In Danish.) Virkomhetsplan for 1994. (Action plan for 1994.) 1994. Norges landbrukshogskole, Institutt for Skogfag, As. 21 pp. (In Norwegian.) 446 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 447 Map of the Nordic Countries (Denmark's Greenland and Faroe Islands, and Norway's Svalbard and Jan Mayen islands are not shown on the map) 448 Statistics A. Area and population B. Structure of land use, %. C. Forest resources Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Total area, km 2 43 094 338 145 103 000 323 877 449 964 Population, 1000 5 162 4 998 262 4 299 8 585 Persons/km 2 120 16 3 14 21 Rural population, % 15 20 9 27 17 Source: Yearbook of Nordic statistics 1994. Nordic Council of Ministers, Nord 1994:1 Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Forests 11 66 - 28 60 Other wooded land 11 1 3 9 Agricultural land 69 10 2 3 9 Other land 20 13 97 65 22 Source: The forest resources of the temperate zones: the UN-ECE/FAO 1990 forest resource assessment. Volume I. General forest resource information. 1992. United Nations, New York. Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Forest, 1000 ha 466 20 112 11 8 697 24 437 Other wooded land, 1000 ha - 3 261 123 868 3 578 Forest and other wooded land, ha/person 0.09 4.68 0.54 2.26 3.27 Source: The forest resources of the temperate zones: the UN-ECE/FAO 1990 forest resource assessment. Volume I. General forest resource information. 1992. United Nations, New York. 449 D. Tree species distribution, % of growing stock. E. Productive forest area by owner groups, %. F. Forest products in the economy, million US $ in 1991. Denmark Finland Norway Sweden Coniferous 52 82 8 0 84 Broadleaved 48 18 2 0 16 Source: The forest resources of the temperate zones: the UN-ECE/FAO 1990 forest resource assessment. Volume I. General forest resource information. 1992. United Nations, New York. Denmark Finland Norway Sweden Public - state 26 24 9 18 - other public 12 5 6 8 Private - companies 16 9 4 24 - other 46 63 81 50 Source: Yearbook of Nordic statistics 1994. Nordic Council of Ministers, Nord 1994:1. Denmark Finland Norway Sweden Production 584 8 959 2 400 10 756 % of GDP - 7 2 4 Imports 1 766 512 708 1 168 Exports 417 8 238 1 517 9 873 % of trade 1 36 4 18 Source: Forestry statistics today and tomorrow 1961- Rome. -1991...2010. 1993. FAO, 450 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries Subject index A architecture 101, 144, 280-281, 286, ... ~, ~ f, 297,310,372,418,421 Abies aba (see silver fir) .... art 280, 297, 439 Abies amabilis 147 , „ „„ ... ... , „ . ash 20,83, 124,380 Abies grandis (see grand fir) Abies lasiocarpa (see subalpine fir) sl ... . . aspen 29, 83, 85-86, 88, 126, 174-175, Ab/es norcimanniana (Caucasian silver F ~ . ZIJ, LLS. LL J, .7/o rir) ... , , i , Austria 146 Abies procera (see noble fir) acceptable change 314 Acer pseudoplatanus (see sycamore) ® aesthetics 48, 50, 54-55, 57, 59, 74, 95, badger 171 193-195, 259, 279-290, 295-320, bark 17, 23, 25, 118, 213 336, 378, 380, 384, 407, 409, 420, beaver 171 439 beech 12-13, 20, 29, 31, 33, 83, 137, afforestation 52-54, 82-84, 87, 93, 267- 282-286, 304, 367, 380, 409-411 268, 288-289, 302, 304, 306, 308, Bern Convention 228 310, 315, 360-362, 365, 379, 384- berries 17, 50, 55, 57-59, 72-73, 117— 385,398 134, 142, 167-168, 194, 210, 246, afforestation of fields 84, 93, 288-289, 253, 256-257, 270, 344, 349-350, 308, 315, 361-362, 365, 379, 384- 376,388,407,426,433,436 385 Betula sp. (see birch) agricultural lands 21-24, 32, 84, 89, 93, bicycling 246-247, 257, 259, 269, 365- 162, 177-178, 202-203, 210, 213, 366,410 217, 229, 280, 288-289, 296-298, biodiversity 52, 54, 58-60, 91, 93-95, 308, 315, 323, 325, 327, 329, 333, 104, 191-244, 313-314, 334, 384, 335, 359-362, 365, 379, 384-385, 392, 397, 403, 411, 413, 418, 427- 437 428,437-439 agricultural landscape 194, 205, 323, bioenergy 96, 108 420 biological aspects 89, 95, 127, 142, 199, agricultural policy 359, 368 204, 210, 220-222, 283, 301, 322- agriculture 17,21-24, 26, 29-30, 32, 87, 323, 327-328, 330, 333-334, 336- 97, 100, 109, 133, 172,280, 323-324, 337, 371, 407, 418, 420, 423, 431 335-336, 315, 359-362, 365, 368, 432,438 379, 384-385, 437 biological diversity (see biodiversity) agroforestry 22, 24 biologists 192-193, 216, 219, 229, 386, Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) 394- 431 395, 400-403, 408 biology 69, 78 (see also conservation animal husbandry 17, 19-21, 23-24 biology) alder 20, 23, 83, 85, 88, 175-176, 207, birch 12, 14, 19-20, 23, 25, 27, 29-30, 225,304 82-83, 85-89, 93-94, 99-101, 118, Alnus sp. (see alder) 122, 124, 126, 137, 141, 147, 173 arboreal lichens 161, 166-167, 180 176, 196, 214, 218, 281-283, 288, archetypes 73, 260, 297-298 298, 301, 304, 429 archipelago 58, 218, 299 451 birds 52, 158, 175, 177-178,203,212- 304, 349-350, 361-363, 372, 374, 213, 222, 258, 273, 305, 349, 367, 376-378,381,383,399,434 381,388,402,410 climate 12, 27, 34, 52, 54-55, black cottonwood 87, 196 104, 108, 194, 196, 258, 288, 311, blue spruce 147 331,371,428,439 boating 246 climate change 27, 104, 428, 439 bogs (see peatlands) coasts 13, 16, 25, 27, 32, 83, 87-89, 124, boreal forest 14, 82, 89, 122, 124, 144, 136, 144, 159-160, 200, 311-312, 178, 199-200, 206, 209-210, 225, 327,420 227-228, 382 computers 106, 290, 309, 314, 394-396, broadleaved forests 12, 84, 91, 124, 210, 404-406,408, 411^112 212, 228, 282, 304, 306, 309, 337, cones 118-119 365, 372, 375, 380, 385 conflicts 45, 47, 54, 56-57, 60, 69, 72, broadleaved trees 12, 19-20, 23,29, 82- 165-166, 174, 269, 301-305, 322, 83, 85, 88-91, 124, 210, 213, 223, 327, 329-330, 333, 336-337, 358, 227,283,299,304-306,378 360, 363, 366, 382, 386-387, 397, browsing 19, 20, 24, 29, 31-32, 147, 403,406-407,423,431,440 172-175 coniferous forests 12, 17, 19, 23-24, 26, bryophytes 210, 213,227-228 29, 82, 88-89, 104, 122, 137, 141, burnbeating (see shifting cultivation) 144, 158-159, 165, 199, 202, 207, burned areas 28, 29, 84, 87, 178, 207, 210, 212, 217, 220-221, 282-285, 209, 213, 219-220, 225, 300 298-299, 304, 308, 350 burned wood 207, 213 conifers 12, 14, 19-20, 82-83, 88, 90- 91, 98, 124, 137, 197-198, 210, 281, C 372 ~ 0 _ conservation biology 194, 204-205, 222, cable transportation 87 camping 52,58,353,398,410,430 Vt • „ u _ , Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) Canada 272 34 * capercaillie 158, 175-179 . . ~ a, a coppice 20, 24-25, 33 carbon 55,58,60,83,418 ,en ~, cryptogams 211, 227 cany,„g capacity 158. 161-162 cu|tura| 50 cattle (see livestock) ?7 g 2 % Caucasian *ct fir 147 280_281 , 289 . 297 , 299_301 , 305- 307 - 309- 310 ' 313" 314 ' 321" 341 ' , 359, 38 1 , 386.410,4 1 8,420,426 Chernobyl 168 , , , • ec n^ i •1 1 1Q O~A 0 ~ A cultural heritage 47, 55, 59, 96, 261, chiMren _ 18, 262-263, 266-268, 270, 297 . 313 . 32V341. 398.432 ™ ' cultural history 48, 297, 322-323, 334- Christmas trees 48, 52, 54, 87, 94, 96- 410 98, 100, 118, 146-148, 198, 398, 3.5 3 / 490—1? 1 cultural landscape 14, 27-29, 281, 296, 1 V o, no nn ,« m 304- 313, 315, 323, 328- clearcut areas 94, 128, 130, 166, 177- 178, 197, 199, 205, 209, 213-214, 331-333, 335-336, 375, 420, 220,222,225,228,302,314,378 J ... o-, oo n* cultural remains 322-323, 326, 329, clearcutting 34, 85, 87, 89, 92, 94-95, 193' 199 202 210 215 210' 219°' CU ' tUre 23' 57 ' 73' 263' 266' 286' 2"~ '222,5 SS lot3 "-^ 33»- 358' 452 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 370-372, 375-376, 380-381, 386- ecologists 219, 334, 381, 387 387 ecology 58, 69-70, 204-205, 222, 226- 227, 266, 272, 305, 307, 309-310, D 381, 418, 421, 431-132, 434, 437, dead wood 91, 201, 206-207, 209-213, 439 . . „.. 220-221 223 225 228 283 410 economic aspects 15. 17, 23, 30, 34, 47- - 21, , , , , , 5 , 54_56> 60_61 , 74 , 77> 95 109 , \ 121-122, 1 27-128, 130-131, 144, decaying wood 207, 210-211,223, 225, m , f t ,-7 17 ,o w77 71 192-195, 215-216, 228, 274, 296- m ™ 297 < 30(^303' 305' 308- 31 °" 322' 33 o' 33^336 ' 343- 355 < 358" 362 ' A t iai 177 iha ,7A no 364, 369-372, 374-376, 380, 383, deciduous trees 161, 172, 174, 176, 178, /ion A r)\ 194, 202, 207, 209, 218, 220, 222, 38^ 87 ' 3 4°9 ' 42°^21 ' 428 ' 225,228,281-283,299,302,305, . ' 9 economics 78, 330, 343-355, 407, 418— , 38U 421, 426-127, 429, 434- decision making 47, 61, 107, 180, 273, 351, 367, 371, 388, 392-394, 397, 435,43/,4.39 400-403 , 406. 408 . 411-112, 431, «onomM» 46 35M79 economy 17, 32, 44, 69, 73, 78, 96-98, .. „ no t .. 101-102, 105-106, 108, 272, 301, • 336, 359, 361-362, 371, 420, 427, , OS O?'?fa 436, 438—439 deer 28,31,419 . , , . . ecosystems 12, 27, 50-51, 60, 74, 95, deforestation 25 27, 29 34, 195, 202, ]()4 , 95_ 196 i i 9B _200, 202, .. . ~, 206,209,215,217-218,225,227, disturbances 144, 161, 165, 169, 199- 200, 204, 206-210, 216, 219-222, ' 336, 382, 387, 407, 418, n ''l' 'f « 3 ,°ti 3 ' education 48, 50-52, 54, 78, 142, 226, Douglas fir 83, 147 drainage 84, 89-, 92 93, 118, 126-127, 307-308 329 353 371-372 131 140 172 210 221-222 224 228 ; 302, 325, 334, 361, 365, 369, 386" 387 ' 421' 424' , 373" 374 : 37^377 ' 3?9 ' 383 ' 436 electricity 103, 106-107 dunesB2 ' 42o elk 28, 147, 305 elm 12, 20, 83, 124 E emotions (see feelings) ecolabelling 106, 388 employment 48, 54-55, 60, 72, 82, 97, ecological aspects 15, 51,56-57, 60-61, 101, 106, 108-109, 164, 226, 266, 91-93, 95-96, 103, 107, 161, 172, 270, 360-362, 371, 375, 377, 379, 174, 192, 195-196, 198, 202, 204- 406,429 205, 216, 218, 220-221, 261, 301- endangered species 95, 196, 217, 225- 302, 304-305, 307-309, 311, 314, 226, 327, 344-345, 349-350, 353, 371, 376, 380, 385-387, 421, 423, 431 431—432, 436 energy 96, 98, 106-108, 118, 161, 169, ecological corridors 93, 199, 202-203, 172, 175,407,436 205-206, 216, 220, 227, 310 Engelman spruce 86-87, 147 ecological processes 198, 200, 206, 215 environment 19, 34, 36, 47^18, 52, 54, 453 57,59, 83, 89, 91-93, 108, 259, 261, 361-362 263, 267, 273-274. 284, 286, 288, extinction 89, 106, 171-172, 177, 204- 290, 296, 300, 305, 308, 333-335, 205,353 344, 348, 353-354, 357-390, 398, 407, 420-421, 424, 427-428, 430, F 433 435^139 • ' , ~ Faeus sylvatica (see beech) environmental aspects 44,48, 50, 52, 54, * J \ 58, 92-95, 99-100, 102-104, 106- ' 108, 164, 192-195, 199, 215, 229, 3 „ „ 258, 270, 272, 281, 283, 286, 290, JJ'mb 306, 308, 329, 336, 345, 353, 357- !. 01 ' 'J?' **6 ' 3336] „ 363 ' 398 4ia 42M21 ' 4U" . ' „ ' ~ co fells (see mountains) environmental groups 358, 367-377, r.. , , 372,374, 376-377, 381-382,387 fibreboards 96,99, 101 i • aoi a™ An a fields (see agricultural lands) environmental econom.cs 427,429,434, lBi 23 , 29 . 82> 84 89 100 105> 4 , , . 175, 178, 200, 203, 206-210, 213, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 107,377,400,424 r 216, 2 8-222, 224-225, 365 . , firewood (see fuelwood) environmental movements 91, 366-367, 372,383,387,423 IS / ' ... , ,• c. ir„ ia fishing 45, 54, 72-73, 160, 226, 256, environmental policy 51, 261, 359, 364, ° 367, 370, 387,424, 439 263 ' *73 ' 368 ' ™ environmental problems 107, 354, 386, * iT, r . fodder (see forage) ... Nic forage 45, 54, 57-58, 60, 334 environmental protection 47, 82, 215, c 261, 283 , 286, 359-360, 364 , 36&- S ™ -j/:-? nn ni n,- too no forest companies 90, 92, 96, 98-99, 101, B Yl m 388 « 424 1 t lo3' ,05- 107' 216' 22(«22' 22^ \ t « 222 - 229. 362-363, 368, 377, 381, ""K 6 52 ' 74 " 86 ' 94 ' 1 96 ' 304 ' 398 ' 386,434,436 ~ • oao ,no 001 forest degradation 58,91,200,229 eth.cs 57. 193 298,301,308.381 9| 2J2 _ et nic groups 304-306.308-312 Europe 12, 14, 20, 25, 27, 30, 34, 60, 72, . . ... . «7 8/1 Q 9 Q 7 i n i im ino forest fertilization 91-94, 131, 148, 167, , 9 1 J ' '° 2' 174,228,302,374,383,410,436 121-122, 124, 135, 146, 148, 160, 1 . ' '„ ' 171, 198, 228-229, 246, 272, 274, 296, 308, 323, 360-361, 387-388, , 7' T \ ~ „ <- (1 c , CQ 420 424 428—429 439 foreSt mdUStry 36' 51 ' 53' 59 ' 85' 89 ' c IT ■ qi q/ in, in< inn 92"93 - 95-109, 194, 281, 296, 308, European Union 83-84, 104, 106, 109, 974 490 344 ' 358' 36°-362' 373-374, 376, 2 ,308,387 388, 29 3 3 399 4Q7 42 423^24 ; Everyman s right (see Right of Public 433 437 CCeSS> . co „ c forest landscape 85, 87, 94, 177, 199, exotic tree spec.es « 82-BMS 88 90, m _ Si 3M 3« 4« «6 2 «o ' 295- 320' 324 334 ' 392- 400- 4 «75,43 80 402- 406, 42 253' , , , IU , IU , IZU, , 289-290 298 307 413 418 172, 192, 194, 199-203, 216, 226, ' 229, 304, 306, 357-390, 395, 397, „ .. .. .. „ __ 399 424 428 434 437-439 Germany 3°' 33' 44^5 ' 55 ' 68 ' 72 ' 82 ' jyy, / , ZÖ, J , 497,135,146,212,297,300 forest regeneration 19, 31, 33-34, 60, 90, 92-93, 158, 165-166, 172, 174, goat * 176, 199, 206, 210, 216, 283, 301- g randtirB3 302 304 328 369 373-374 379- g rants (se ® subsidies) 380 399 403 428-429 ' graZing 14 " 15 ' 19 ~2°' 23 " 25 ' 3°"33' jöu, jyy, 4UJ, 45,47,50,55,58-59,85-87,89,118, forest regenerate artificially 85, 91-92, l 58_ 162 i 165_ 169 , 172 . ]76 . r 94,349 . ~ 180, 194, 198, 200, 202, 207-210, forest 34 51.91- 283, 302,349,429 ' 337, 359-361, 429-430 gravel S(J forest restoration 51, 104, 195-196,200, % . 0 _ Qnri ... 202-204,211,215.228,398 Ore, Bma.n 27, 105,289,309,311 forest roads 93-94, 228, 253, 259, 302- 8 ... ... ~, ... 303, 305 , 365, 369, 371-373 , 377, 3° 7 ,175- 78,180 3. £-M7 guidelines 48, 50, 52, 58, 60, 92-94, 96, 4- o-7 AA A* c-7 CO 137 < 289 < 296 < 302' 304-305, 308- foresters 37, 44-45, 48, 54, 57-58, 68, a™ a.™ 70-72, 74, 77, 82, 91-92, 94, 165, 3°9 ' 331' 3%' 398' 432^33 180, 192-193, 216, 219, 226, 228- 229, 288, 300-301, 314, 322, 327, H 331, 335, 338, 366, 381, 385-387, habitats 31, 59-60, 143, 158, 173-178, 413,427,429,434 180, 192, 195, 202-210, 213-214, fossil fuels 107 216-217, 220, 225-228, 327, 334, France 105, 119-120, 136 367, 369, 380-381, 388, 400, 402- Fraxinus excelsior (see ash) 403,413,432 frogs 205, 213 handbooks (see guidelines) fruits 17, 122, 124 handicapped persons 268 fuelwood 14, 20, 25-27, 30-33, 52, 60, hares 171 86, 96, 100, 194, 333, 398, 407 harmony 46, 49, 69, 91, 166, 259, 261, fungi 52, 88, 90, 136, 141, 144, 165,211 301,308,311,314-315,411 fur 17, 171 hazel 17, 20, 124, 225 455 heaths 16, 29, 82-83, 125, 161.203, 281 381-382, 384, 394-399, 413, 419, heavy metals 139, 169 433, 435 herbicides 93-95, 194, 228, 369-370, invertebrates 21 1 -212, 225 372,381,383 Ireland 105 herbivores 209 iron 26-27, 33 herbs 19, 52, 118-119, 161, 177-178, island biogeography 204 207, 218, 225, 266, 375 islands 14, 17, 36, 52, 58, 86, 93, 100, heritage preservation 323-331, 333, 336, 124, 144, 159-160, 204-205, 218, 338 420 hiking 48, 169, 246, 263, 266, 349-350, Italy 146 353, 367 historical aspects 11—41, 72, 95, 209, J 346, 307, 309-310, 314, 321-341, 360, 363, 368, 382, 384, 407, 410, Japan 98 ... ~Q 420.436 J'ls ®', 2® historical monuments 323-331, 333, ' Um ' 126,147 335 398 Jumperus communis (see juniper) historical sites 323-328, 330, 335 history 11-41, 48, 73, 78, 82, 134-136, K 158-160, 166, 196, 200, 204, 297- key habitats 216, 225-227, 380 299, 307, 311, 321-342, 410, 418- key species 225-226 420, 434 Hong Kong 98 L horse 18,94, 164,246,272,302 0 _ OQri , n , lakes 26, 58, 84, 87, 222, 225, 280, 296- horse riding 246, 259, 272 hunting 17-18, 24, 28, 30-31, 36, 48, ' ° 11Q lon ... 50, 54-55, 57-58, 72-73, 118, 158, om 215-2 6 227-229 170-178, 180, 194, 200, 226, 256, 14 ' '.l 392 259, 263, 273, 297, 333, 344-348, . . ' ' 351, 353, 359, 368-369, 381, 407, . . ' ' in , ... 410 AT.A ownership 14, 194, 347, 368,420 U. 7 , to land reform 14, 24, 30, 34 hydrology 58, 307 landscape aesthetics 48, 50, 55, 280, 288, 297, 301, 304, 306-307, 310, 1 409, 420, 439 ice age 12, 192 landscape architecture 280, 372, 418, imports 25-26, 30, 33, 87-98, 100, 102, 421 104, 146-147, 203 landscape aspects 15. 24, 47, 50-52, 54, indicator species 225-226,410 60, 74, 84-85, 87-88, 96, 106, 176, information technology 108 178, 198-205, 209, 216, 218, 220- insecticides 228 221, 225-227, 258-260, 279-341, insects 130, 164, 194, 203, 212-213, 353,365,397-398,403-407,409 334 landscape ecology 69, 204-205, 226- interest groups 45, 48-49, 57, 68, 93, 227,305,307,309-310,314 107, 172, 358, 364, 366, 370, 374, landscape management 37, 109, 118, 394, 397-399, 404, 406, 409, 411, 260, 295-320, 322, 338, 421, 427, 419 433 inventory of forest resources 13, 34, 83, landscape protection 369, 380 94,122,129,140,286,365,367,379, Lapland 27, 119, 124, 127, 131, 141, 456 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 167-169, 176, 302, 350, 424, 426- moose 158, 171-175, 178, 214, 345- 427 348,351,402 larch 83, 86-87, 100, 196, 288 moss 52, 55, 118, 144, 256 Larix sp. (see larch) mountain pine 83, 86, 196 legislation 15, 30, 32, 34, 36, 5- mountains 19, 58, 86-87, 89, 120, 122, 55,57-59,68-70,89,91,93,95,119, 124, 159-162, 198, 209, 221-222, 160, 162, 171, 195, 199, 202, 216, 303,348,350,397 222, 227, 246-247, 300, 302-304, mushrooms 17, 50, 55, 57-59, 72, 117- 306-307, 314, 323, 326-330, 344, 120, 130, 134-144, 194, 246, 253, 358-360, 363-371, 373-375, 377- 256-257, 266, 270, 344, 350, 376, 381, 383, 385, 387, 396-398, 409, 407,426,433,436 424,431,434,438 music 280 lichen 50-52, 119, 144-146, 160-162, mycorrhiza 135, 137, 140-141, 165-166 165-169, 180,211,213,256 lifecycle analysis 107 N lime 12,20,83,225,304 . , . co . national accounting 58 hnden (see lime) national parks 54, 200, 217, 263-264, literature 280, 297-299 / livestock 19-20, 24-25, 31, 118, 176, 194, 202, 208, 327-328, 334-335, J/u, jöd, 4/4 nature conservation (see nature protec- Lodgepole pine 36, 83, 87-88, 90, 100, U °n} . „„„ 146-147, 196-198, 201, 282, 288 natUre interPretat™ f J 274 . . , . .. nature protection 47, 50-55, 57, 71, 74, Lupmusnootkatensts 94 91 m ,]9 m ynX 217, 225, 227-229, 261, 263, 270, 272, 296, 299-305, 307-308, 313, 328, 359-362, 364, 366, 369-371, markets 15, 25, 30, 33-34, 48, 98-102, 373-376, 380, 385, 387, 393, 395, 104-106, 109, 132, 137, 146-147, 397-399,403,407,411,420,424- 323, 344, 348, 351, 353-354, 368, 425,427,433-434,437 385,407,420,428,438 nature reserves 54, 58, 192, 194-195, marsh (see peatland) 199-200, 202, 205, 215-218, 221 meadows 20, 24, 126, 202, 281, 286, 222, 227, 263-264, 328, 348, 359, 297, 304, 310, 410 371, 375, 380, 382, 385, 421 mechanized logging 34, 94, 108, 158, nature schools 261-267 302, 324, 362, 369, 378, 383, 406 Netherlands 27, 146 medicine 60, 73, 144 nitrogen 24, 58, 94, 167, 175, 196, 228 metapopulation theory 204-205 noble fir 147 mining 25-26, 30-33, 87, 89, 333 noise 48, 74, 258 mires (see peatland) non-governmental organizations 262- mixed forest 12, 14, 19-20, 82, 85, 89, 263, 266, 272, 366, 382, 388, 428 91, 93, 124, 137, 141, 172, 203, 207, North America 45, 104, 121-122, 197, 281-285, 287, 304, 308, 310-311 205, 309 monocultures 91, 158, 195, 203, 221, Norway spruce 12-14, 23, 36, 83, 85- 281,283 89, 92, 99-100, 103, 122, 124, 126- montane forests 87, 217, 360-362, 379, 127, 137, 140-141, 146-148, 168, 381-382,432 173, 176, 178, 198, 207, 209-210, moors 280, 334 213, 219-221, 225, 228, 282, 287, 457 302, 304, 311, 349 Pinus aristata 86 nuclear power 107, 168 Pinus contorta (see Lodgepole pine) nutrients 20, 24, 31, 89, 118, 130, 173, Pinus mugo (see mountain pine) 199, 336,436 Pinus sylvestris (see Scots pine) nuts 17, 256 pioneer species 19, 23, 29 planning aspects 45, 95, 107, 169, 179 O 180, 216, 226-227, 253, 268, 272, , 10 _ n _ Q „ ~ fi , 314, 328, 331, 338, 359, 365, 368- 371 ' 374~375 ' 379 ' 384 ' 38"87 ' , u' r ,n, one 391-416, 421, 426, 428, old-growth forest 104, 210-214, 225, 361,375,382,385 , ec • . ■ AO oir» /lin /im planning of forestry 44, 49, 52, 61, 100, orienteering 48 263,269 270, 410,419 IQ3 179_ lgo> 199> 221 , 258, 305- ornamental foliage (see decorative 3()6j 335_336, 365, 368-370, 373- greenery) 39 1_4 16 420 427 ornithology 228,262, 367, 381,410 ' ' './ I ' , . ... . planning ol landscape 216, 226-227, overgrazing 14,86, 144, 161-162 307-314 434 planning of multiple-use 180, 270, 281, P 391-416,420-421,426 painting 18, 290, 297-298 plantations 36, 87, 90, 93-94, 100, 105, pannage 20, 29, 33 124, 137, 147-148, 174, 198, 201— paper 89, 96-108, 195, 308,439 203, 213, 217, 306, 310, 314, 327, paperboard 99, 103, 105 364, 376, 398, 420, 434 particle boards 96-99, 101 ploughing 94, 130, 168, 178, 302, 308, pastures (see grazing) 377 paths 119, 259, 284, 327, 334, 365,402 plywood 96, 99, 103 peat 50, 126, 131, 325 poaching 18 peatlands 26, 82, 84, 89, 93-94, 118, political aspects 14-15, 17, 30, 32-33, 120-124, 126-129, 131, 139-140, 47,54,104,192,199,296,358,361, 207, 209, 218, 222, 227-228, 299, 364, 366-367, 371, 380-382, 385, 305, 325, 334, 361, 365, 375-376, 387, 407, 418, 421, 423, 432, 438- 383,436 439 pensioners 270, 274 political science 78,418, 439 perception 55, 72-75, 77, 259, 281-285, pollarding 24, 327, 333-334 289-290, 297, 385-386, 396, 433- pollution 47-48, 55, 74, 104, 106, 168- 434 169, 193, 196, 200, 228-229, 353, pesticides 91 370,418,436 Picea abies (see Norway spruce) Population Viability Analysis (PVA) 205 Picea engelmannii (see Engelman Populus sp. (see aspen) spruce) Populus trichocarpus (see black cotton- Picea glauca (see white spruce) wood) Picea omorica (see Serbian spruce) potash 27, 30, 89, 96 Picea pungens (see blue spruce) predators 19, 31, 75, 163-164, 171-172, Picea sitchensis (see Sitka spruce) 177-179, 203, 213 pigments 99 preferences 19, 166, 180, 258-260, 281- pigs (see swine) 282, 285, 288-289, 344, 349, 393- pine (see Scots pine) 394, 397, 403, 407, 412—413, 419, pine marten 171 433 458 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries prescribed burning 93, 178, 219-220 135, 194, 246-247, 264-265, 272, pristine forest 126, 137, 140, 194, 197, 280, 344, 349, 360, 365-366, 387- 202-203, 207, 210, 224, 228-229, 388,439 283, 299, 349-350, 352, 379, rivers 16, 27, 34-35, 144, 225, 306, 399 property rights 15,33,366,384 rowan 29, 86, 122, 124, 126-127, 132, protective functions of forest 44, 46-48, 174, 283, 287 50-52,55,72,74-75,420,436 Russia 12, 14, 16-17,25, 104, 159-160, Pseudotsuga menziesii (see Douglas fir) 168, 428 psychology 78, 280-281, 290, 352 public participation 366, 375, 386, 392, S 395,399,403^04,408,431 _ , PUtf 376" 9 4 9 39 101 ' 103' 105 ' 107' 194, sa730 P 83 S , e 87 WI I36 W . 5 39, 142 Sami people 60, 158-162, 164, 326, 387 sawmills 27, 35, 87, 89, 96, 98, 100- Q 103,105,109,344,360,437 Quercus sp. (see oak) sawnwood 96, 100-101, 104-105,439 scenery 48, 280, 296-298, 302, 308, 409 R Scots pine 12-14, 27, 85, 87-89, 92, 94, 118, 122, 124, 126, 128, 137, 140- racoon dog 71 m_ range (see grazing) 209-210 213-214 219 recreation 12,44-60, 71-73, 78, 82,94, ' " J U ' ' 118-119, 169, 171, 194-195, 245- 228, 282-283, 286, 299, 309- 278, 280, 282-284, 297, 301, 303- , . on M nA n c ~ AO ain ~,,,, selection cutting 34, 89, 92, 94-95, 166, 306, 308, 310, 313, 330, 333, 335- 337, 344-345, 347-350, 353, 358, _ , A 360-362, 364, 366-367, 369-371, ®r 374-375, 378, 380-382, 384-388, L 392, 395, 397-399, 407, 409, 419- 52 ' 83 ' 288 ' 3°4 ' 398 ' 420 421, 424, - R 1 Art OO m. 58,61,82,85,91-96,103-104,107, recycled fibre 99, 105, 107 IQ9 m , 65 redfox 171 178,213 26Q 2%^ red squirre 71 300-302, 304, 307-308, 310-311, reforestaUon 36 83-84, 178, 195-196, 3% 302, 365,430 436 439 reindeer husbandry 50-51, 58-60, 118, 7 ' ' "97 8e 136, 144, 158-169, 179-180, 194, spruce 36, 83, 87-88, 196, 302, 200 350 359 427 434 'u a o cc nc\ OA Inn shifting cultivation 19, 22-23, 26, 29, To 2-103 139, 173, 176,' 193', 1%! 291 ~29*> 203, 221, 225, 273-274, 280-281, . 285-287, 289-290. 296. 307-314. S !tt ™ 331. 344-345, 351, 364, 367, 382, *'7 l ®' 246 ' 25 , 2 ' 2"' 2 f 3 ' 2®: 270 395-396 399 411-413 slash-and-burn cultivation (see shifting . , IS .L ' ' cultivation) T!" •a* a, , Bfi snags 207, 210-211, 220-221, 223, 225, rhetoric 48, 61, 386, 388 ° Right of Public Access 58, 118-120, co ... ~, ~n snow 88, 130, 163, 165-166, 169, 210, 459 252, 257 sustainable forestry 44, 48, 60-61, 93, snowmobiling 164, 269 107, 379, 384, 423, 439 social aspects 15, 26, 30, 33, 45, 47-48, sustained yield 12, 14, 25, 33-34,45, 68, 50, 52, 54, 60-61, 72-73, 75-77, 82, 95, 161, 172, 196, 199 109, 142, 169, 176, 178, 274, 286, swamps (see peatlands) 290, 301, 348, 376, 381, 395, 407, swans 118 423, 428, 432, 439—140 swidden cultivation (see shifting cultiva- Social Impact Assessment (SIA) 107 tion) social science 274, 428, 432 swine 20-21, 29, 334, 360 social values 48, 52, 95, 335, 362, 384, sycamore 83 438,440 societal aspects 49-50, 56, 61, 82, 107, T 362, 387 society 12, 21. 30, 34, 37,45,47-18, 51, l?: II ™ ~o 54-55, 58, 70, 73-74, 77, 82, 195, ' 8? ' 89 ' 1 18 ' 194 ' 246, 261, 268-270, 280-281, 300, ; , 315, 322, 330, 344, 376, 385-386, aspect:s 1:5,25>, 27, 30, 105 " 4,5 - 42 a 423 ' 429 ' 433- "ss-r *• 439-440 , . 01 temperate forest 82,89 socioeconomic aspects 421, 423, 432, .. . v thinnings 87, 91-92, 100, 118, 131, 195, no , 10 210,220,302,311,350,365 sociology 78,418,426,439 . ' ' , . ' ' •1 11 nAon ai ha qi o< on threatened habitats 202, 380 soil 12,24, 29, 31,48, 50, 74, 83, 85, 89, , , i£ IS- m~206 Z- 220-221', M 3n, 324..ii 460 Multiple-use forestry in the Nordic countries 350, 367, 372, 421, 427, 429, 437 welfare 44, 55, 58, 82, 95, 108 trade 15, 27, 87, 96-97, 99, 102-106, wet forest 207, 209, 222, 224-225, 227- 122, 136, 146, 160, 379, 429 228, 380 trails 252-253, 257, 263-264, 266, 272, Wetland Convention 388 284-285, 388 wetlands 210, 361, 375, 379, 388 Travel Cost Method (TCM) 345, 348, white spruce 83, 288 350, 419 wild reindeer 28, 158-159, 161, 166 turf 26 wilderness 21, 36, 217, 259, 266, 270, 298-300. 302, 308, 323, 360, 373, U 426-427 , , wildlife 45, 52, 60, 75, 180, 203, , m .... 108 365,381,407,409,413.437,439 UNCED 60, 92, 94, 107, 195, 9 ' ' o™ wildlife management 45, 392 unemployment 270, 379 Willingness To Accept (WTA) 345-347 United States of America (USA) ' '"8 P ; ' 49, 68-69, 225-226, 269-270, 272- ....... ~./ XD. ... ... 273. 289, 309,428 S «7 urban forestry 69, 301, 375, 42M27. , ' , willows 20, 86, 126, 196, 223 k f t OJ - n wind 13, 83, 119, 166, 200, 206, 210, urban forests 250, 257, 267 368, 287, 220-221, 299, 304, 365, 398, 420, A 9 ' J I a urbanization 36, 52, 73, 82, 109, 134, 139, 142, 147, 194, 250, 267-268, , . 7^ 270, 273, 280, 305, 313, 322-323, woverme 363,366,398.421,429.439 222,226-227 user ees wood-based panels 98, 100 wood (see timber) wood processing 92, 96-116, 438 Vikings 86 wood products 30, 33, 48, 60, 96, 102, virgin forest (see pristine forest) 105, 118, 364, 428 Visual Management System (VMS) 309, wood production (see timber produc -311 tion) Visual Resource Management System (VRMS) 289-290 voles 178 W walking 58, 164, 252-253, 256-257, 262,266, 268-270,410 war 15, 26, 45, 87, 92, 94-95, 136, 142, 296, 301-302, 324, 326, 363, 368, 407 waste paper 99, 104, 107 water 27, 34-35, 45, 47-50, 52, 54-55, 58, 60, 74, 83-84, 89, 94, 96, 106, 118, 131, 166, 194, 218, 269, 297, 308, 311, 331, 359, 365, 375, 427, 437 The Nordic countries are made up of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Each of these countries has its own specific traditions in forestry due to the different geographical, climatic and economic conditions. They also have a lot in common with each other and the rest of the world. Forestry is increasingly characterized by multiple use everywhere. Forest resources are utilized in many different ways to support living. The cultural importance of forests is also appreciated. They are sources of spiritual well-being, essential components in landscapes, and serve as environments for recreation. Recently, the role of forests in preserving biological diversity and in stabilizing local and global ecological systems has been increasingly recognized and studied. Integrating the various material and non-material benefits of forests is a complicated management task. The aim of this book is to serve as an introduction to the Nordic experience in multiple-use forestry. This is done by describing the history, present situation and future challenges of the various ways of utilizing and enjoying forests and by outlining methods for integrated forest management. ISBN 951-40-1421-9 9 789514 01421 5 METLA, The Finnish Forest Research Institute Helsinki Research Centre Unioninkatu 40 A FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland