FOREST ECONOMICS DEPARTMENT 
NEWSLETTER 
/ Editors:  Michael  Jones  and  David  Cope  
Finnish  Forest Research  institute/  Helsinki,  Finland  
Kaisaniemenkatu  1, 00100  Helsinki  10 21.4.1972  No. 27  
DEPARTMENTAL PERSONNEL 
Head  of  Department:  
Prof.  Lauri  Heikinheimo  
FVof.  of  Business  Economics  (acting):  
Prof.  Lorenzo  Runeberg  (plastics  and wood)  
Prof.  Emeritus:  
Prof. N.A. Osara  (Finland's  forestry  in the  world  economy)  
Research  specialist (acting):  
Dr. Esko  Salo  (removal  measurement)  
Senior research  scholarship:  
Dr.  Matti Palo  (forecasting  and  optimization models)  
Researchers:  
David  Cope (outdoor  recreation)  
Matti Heikinheimo  (standard  of  living of  forest  workers)  
Jan Heino (social  benefits  of forests)  
Terho  Huttunen (wood  consumption)  
Jouko  Hämäläinen  (economics  of  thinning)  
Buddhi  Jha  (Finnish  scholarship)  
Dr. Michael  Jones  (land  tenure)  
Heikki  Juslin  (consumer  behaviour)  
Kari  Keipi  (wood-purchase  budgeting)  
Tatu Ollikainen  (fertilization)  
Simo Penttilä  (nursery  economics)  
Aarne  Reunala  (structural  change  in forest  ownership)  
Olli  Saastamoinen  (social  benefits  of forests)  
Sampsa  Sivonen (regeneration  economics)  
Ilpo  Tikkanen (forestry  behaviour  of  non-farmer  forest  owners)  
Hannu Vehviläinen (forest  labour)  
Extra-departmental  researchers:  
FVof.  Seppo Ervasti  (forest  balance)  
Dr. Veli-Pekka  Järveläinen  (silviculture!  behaviour  of forest  owners)  
Heikki  Kunnas  (forestry  in national accounting)  
Research  secretary:  
Marja Harmanen 
Research  assistants/  typists  and  others:  
Erkki  Berg,  Juhani  Hongisto,  Aune  Kankkunen,  Anita Korvenranta,  Maija  Kuusi  
jörvi,  Antero Mäkinen,  Erkki  Raittila, Jaakko  Salo, Katarina  Salo, Rakel  Seppälä,  
Anna-Leena  Simula, Brita Sjöstrand,  Maija-Liisa  Soveri,  Mikko  Tervo, Kaija  
Westin  
2 
Colloquium:  International social-development  policy  
Professor Heikki  Waris will  discuss  international social-development  policy  
at the next meeting  of the colloquium,  which  will  be  held on Monday,  24th  
April,  in the Department's  conference room, starting  at 14.00. The topic  
will  be examined under the following  headings:  
1. The need for social-development  policy  in the world - global concepts  
2. Social-development  policy:  programmes and goals  
3. Social-development  policy  in practice  
Pirkko Kuitunen: The time-budget  study  in the Finnish Forest Research 
Institute 
A part of the State's internal budgeting  work at present being  developed  
and tested in administration takes the form of time-budget  studies,  which  
in their  present  form are being  tried out this year as an  experiment  in the 
Institute together  with four other  State offices. The purpose of internal 
budgeting  is to produce  the information required  by directors and managers 
for planning  and supervision.  With this  aim in mind, internal budgeting  is  
being  used in  the Institute to find out the total costs of existing  projects  
each month.  
Since over  half the total  expenditure  in State administration is in the form 
of salaries,  it is clear that it is  useful to know how these funds are used. 
While administrative book-keeping  allows supervision  of the way in  which 
the approved  income and expenditure  are  used the most important  matters, it  
does not sufficiently  explain  the division of  salary  costs  in the Institute  
among actual  projects.  For example,  a  total budget  of c. 9»7  million marks 
was  allocated to the Forest Research Institute in 1971- Of this,  it is known 
that 6.7 million marks were used for salaries,  but there is no  accurate 
knowledge  of the division  among separate  projects.  A time-budget  study  has 
been shown to be one means  of dividing  personnel  costs among projects.  Every  
employee  keeps  a daily record  of how his working  time is  divided among 
separate  projects,  and at the end of the month the t»tal f»r each project  is 
calculated.  The amount of each person's  monthly  salary  is fed into the 
computer  beforehand,  and, with the help of the time-budget  forms filled in 
by the employees,  the computer  divides the salary  costs  among projects  in 
the same proportion  as the recorder' work time used on each. 
3 
Since in administrative  offices and research institutions it is almost 
impossible  to determine output  in concrete units,  work time provides  a 
substitute  measure of output. It can  only  be a substitute,  since it  merely  
explains  for what the work time is used, without saying  anything  about the 
quality of the work.  
In addition,  the time-budget  study  assists  in  the planning  nf the use  of  
personnel,  since it provides  information concerning  the use of working  time 
by  the present  personnel  as well as possible  existing  faults in its  use.  
(Pirkko  Kuitunen is the Institute's  accountant and is in charge  of 
administering  the time-budget  scheme.)  
New research projects  in the Forest  Economics Department  
(Supplement to Folia Forestalia 87) 
Project no. 1.10 
Project  title: Small sawmills  in Finland,  1972  
Personnel: Terho Huttunen, Seppo  Ervasti  
Date of commencement: 1971 
Planned date of completion:  1973  
The main purpose of the study  is to determine the present  roundwood consump  
tion of small sawmills for total-drain and forest-balance calculations. At  
the same time, light is thrown on the activity  of small sawmills  in general.  
The study  method used is systematic  cluster  sampling,  in which the sawmills  
to be investigated  are those falling  in squares drawn on  the map of Finland 
at even  distances from each other. The results  are then enlarged  tu corre*  
spond  to the total number of small sawmills  in the country.  
The required  information is collected by  interviewing  personally  sawmill  
owners. Interviews will be undertaken by three specially  trained forestry  
students.  
Project no. 1.11 
u
f or 
Project  title: Calculation of sample  size  needecf/cLetcrmination  of total drain: 
preliminary  investigation  for 1975  
Personnel: Esko Salo 
Date of commencement: 1972 
Planned date of completion:  1972  
4 
In accordance with the long-term research programme, the total drain from  
Finnish forests should he determined in 1975« In deciding  the method to 
be  used, it is essential to estimate the cost and precision  of alternative 
methods. One of  the methods is to take a sample  of forest units.  
In this study,  the sample  size needed in simple random sampling  for the 
estimation of the drain from private  forests by forestry  board districts  
will be calculated. For this purpose, the material obtained from the sample 
farms of  the National Board of Agriculture's  sample  study  in 1970 will be 
used. 
Project no. 1.12 
Project  title: Removal and flow of commercial roundwood bjy  districts  in 1970  
Personnel:  Matti Palo (with Esko Pälä,  Ministry  of Labour)  
Date of commencement: 1971  
Planned date of completion:  1972  
The project involves the collection  from roundwood buyers  of data on regional  
removals of commercial  roundwood and flows to the districts  of consumption  
in Finland in 1970» Such  data is useful for  calculating  regional  drain, as 
well as for  the regional  planning  of  transportation  facilities.  
Project no.  1.13 
Project  title:  Accuracy  of seasonal statistics  on the removals of commercial  
roundwood,  19&5-1971 
Personnel:  Matti Palo (with Esko Pakkanen,  of Jaakko Pöyry  & Co.) 
Date of commencement: 1971 
Planned date of completion:  1972 
The project is concerned with computing  the standard errors of the seasonal 
felling  statistics  from the Ministry  of Labour,  and appraising  the accuracy  
of the Ministry of Labour statistics  by  comparing them with the statistics  
on  wood consumption.  
Project no. 2.12 b 
Project title: Forestry behaviour of non-farmer forest owners  
Personnels Ilpo Tikkanen 
Date of commencement: 1972 
Planned date of completion:  1972  
The study attempts to formulate a theoretical model of the forestry behaviour 
of non-farmer forest  owners.  Further, the aim is  to examine how applicable  
5 
this  type  of model is as an instrument of forest policy,  especially  from 
the viewpoint  of forestry-promotion  organizations.  
The study  is planned  as  a  thesis for the degree  of MMK(Master of  Agriculture  
and Forestry).  
Project no.  2.14 a 
Project titles Economic  comparison  of land-use alternatives in the Saariselkä' 
Itäkaira region 
Personnel: Olli  Saastamoinen (with Päiviö Riihinen and Matti  Keltikangas,  
University  of  Helsinki)  
Date of commencements 19&9  
Planned date of completions  1972 
The project  was started at the Department  of National Economics of Forestry  
at Helsinki University  in 1969> and included in the Forest Economics 
Department's  research programme in 1972. The object of the study  is to make 
economic comparisons  of the following  land uses  in the Saariselkä-Itäkaira  
regions  outdoor recreation,  reindeer husbandry,  and timber growing and 
harvesting.  The comparisons  are  made from both the local and national points  
of view, and the method of comparison  is cost-benefit analysis.  
Project  no. 2.14 b  
Project  title: Relationships  between wood production  and outdoor recreation 
Personnel: Jan Heino 
Date of commencements 1971 
Planned date of completions  1973  
The aim of the project  is to examine the possibilities  of reconciling  wood 
production  and outdoor recreation. The conflicts  arising  from different 
wood-production  methods are given  particular  attention.  
The focus of interest will  be on forest areas  owned by towns in Finland,  
and information concerning  their use will  be celleeted by  interviewing  
those responsible  for  the management  of these areas.  
The project forms part of an inter-Nordic investigation  into the multiple  
use of forests. P&rtof the project  will be a thesis for the degree of  
Master of Agriculture  and Forestry  (MMK).  
Project  no. 2.15 
Project  title:  Rural labour-force reserves  in the Finnish development  areas  
in the 1970  
Personnel: Hannu Vehviläinen 
6 
Date of commencement: 1972 
Planned date of completion:  1973 
The project  serves  the development  of structural  rationalization in forestry  
and the planning  of forest labour-force policy.  The aim of the study  is to 
investigate  what level of mechanization in forestry  would be suitable for  
the rural labour force in general,  and especially  for the use by farms of 
their own labour force and machine capacity,  in the 19705»  
In addition,  it is proposed  to construct  a model of the relationship  between 
the degree of mechanization on one side  and the degree of industrialization 
and the employment  structure on the other.  The model will be applied  to 
the Finnish development  areas  and perhaps  later to some developing  countries.  
The preliminary  report  will  be made in 1972, and in 1973 a deeper interview 
study  will  be undertaken. 
Project no, 2.18 
Project  title: A stumpage  model  
Personnel: Lauri Heikinheimo 
Date of commencement: 1972 
Planned date of completion:  1973 
The idea of a stumpage  model based on von Thunen's model of economic location 
was originally  put forward in a lecture given in 1958. Three variables were  
used: labour costs,  transport  costs  and stumpage  price.  
The present project  plans  to develop  the model further,  by taking into consi  
deration alterations in the prices  of the end products  of the woodworking  
industry, alterations in the costs of transportation, distortions brought  
about by  the forest-ownership  pattern, and the effects  of  the geographical  
distribution of and the area served by the woodworking  industry.  
Earlier publications:  
Heikinheimo,  Lauri. Om inkomstf ördelning  (prisbildning)  i kombinationen 
skogsbruk  och  skogsindustri  (On the distribution of income 
(price  formation) in the combination of forestry  and forest 
industry).  Norrlands Skogsv&rdsf örbunds Tidskrift,  3•  
Stockholm. 1959»  
Heikinheimo,  Lauri. Kantorahamalli. 1. Raakapuun  kuljetuskustannusten  vai  
kutus  kantorahaan. Summary:  A stumpage  value model. The impact 
of raw timber transport  costs  on forest owners' stumpage  income. 
Metsätaloudellinen Aikakauslehti.  83:12. Helsinki,  1965» 
7 
Project no. 2.19  
Project title: Non-farmer forestry  owners  and forestry  promotion 
Personnel: Ilpo Tikkanen 
Planned date of commencement: 1973 
Planned date of completion:  1975  
The aim of the study  is  to examine factors affecting  the use of and the need 
for forestry-promotion  organizations,  services  and professional  aid in for  
ests  owned by  non-farmers. 
The commencement of the project  is dependent  on the allocation of funds. 
Project  no. 3.09 
Project  title: Theoretical framework for  an annual wood-purchase  budgeting  
model for a forest-industry  firm 
Personnel: Kari Keipi  
Date of commencement: 1971 
Planned date of  completion:  1973 
The project  consists  of two parts: the creation of an  annual aggregate  
production-planning  model based mainly on the use  of linear programming;  
and combining it with an automatized book-keeping  system. A pilot study  is 
under preparation,  in which  goal  programming  has been used in an optimization  
model combined with a manual matrix-based book-keeping  system.  
The whole model should provide  solutions to problems  of seasonal variations 
in the supply  of saw material and logging  manpower, optimal  combinations of  
transport and storing, and optimal  timing. By  using  shadow prices, it should 
be possible  to analyse  the evaluation of timber from a firm's own forests.  
The model should also answer  the question  of when it  is profitable  to use  
a certain type of saw material for particular purposes (e.g. using  saw 
logs  for sawnwood).  The time  horizon of  the gross loading  is 1-2 years, and 
in addition it should produce  aggregate  production  plans  for periods  of  
3-4 months. The model should also provide  information for the detailed 
scheduling  and short-term planning of a wood-purchasing  forest-industry  firm.  
Project no. 3.12 
Project  title: Economic and.  ecological  prospects  of  recycling  more  paper 
Personnel: Matti Palo 
Date of commencement: 1971 
Planned date of completion:  1972  
8 
The economic and ecological  prospects  of recycling  more  paper are being  
studied on a global  basis, with special  reference to Finland and the USA. 
The theoretical frame of  reference focusses on the transformation of the 
linear technology  of the pulp  and paper industry  into a circular  technology.  
Models are developed  to explain  regional  differences in paper recycling.  
Personal information 
(Supplement  to Folia Forestalia, 87) 
Saastamoinen, Olli Juhani 
b. 22.9.1945 
Family: Marja-Liisa Pennanen 
Children: Mirka, b.  1969? Katja, b. 1971  
Degrees:  MH 1968, VTK 1971  
Positions held: 
1966-68 Forest  Research Institute. Research assistant  
1968-69  Leningrad  Forest Academy. Scholarship  
1969-72  University  of Helsinki.  Researcher 
1972 f. Forest  Research Institute. Researcher 
Present academic studies: Licentiate degree in forest economics 
Languages:  Finnish,  Russian,  English,  Swedish 
Addendum and corrigenda 
The following  project  was  omitted from the current research programme published  
in the last issue of the Newsletter; 
date 
Some changes  have also been made in project  numbers,  as follows s  
1.12 a) becomes 1.12 j 1.12 b) becomes 1.13; 2.15  and 2.17  are reversed;  
2.19  should be added (see  new research projects,  above).  
'roject Project title Personnel  Date of 
start 
Planned 
completion  
2.0?  National income accounting  Heikki  Kunnas,  1968 1973 
for forestry-  Lauri Heikinheimo 
9 
Departmental mailing list  
A quick  check through the card catelogue  shows  that the foreign mailing  
list  for  the Department's  publications  contains 329 addresses  in 45 different 
countries. Topping  the list is  the U.S.A.,  with 68 addresses,  followed by  
Sweden,  with 36  addresses,  the U.S.S.R. ,  with 35 addresses,  Norway, with 26  
addresses,  and Canada,  with 23 addresses. West Germany  has 17, Great Britain 
13 and Australia 12 addresses. The remaining  countries each have 10 or less. 
The mailing  list was compiled from the returnable address  cards sent out 
with Folia Forestalia 87  ("Economics  research in the Finnish Forest Research 
Institute,  1969-1971")» which was sent to  forest economists and economics  
institutions throughout  the world in 1970» The list  includes  all members 
of the Nordic Forest  Economics Seminar,  as well as most of the economists  
connected with lUFRO. 
If institutions abroad are  interested in receiving  a copy of  the mailing  
list for  their  own purposes, please  contact the Research Secretary,  Forest  
Economics Department, Finnish Forest Research Institute,  Kaisaniemenkatu 1, 
SF. 00100 Helsinki 10, Finland. 
Forest Economics Outside Finland,  V 
Details of some current research in forest economics  at North Carolina 
State University,  U.S.A.,  are reproduced  below from SoFew News (vol.  3, no.  3»  
and vol. 4> n °» 1)• 
School of Forest Resources,  
North Carolina State University,  
Raleigh,  N. C. 21607  
The faculty  and graduate  students of  the School of Forest Resources are  
engaged  in about 50 different research projects. The following is a list  of  
some of them with special  economics interest: 
H. Chang  and W.T. McKean: Pulp-industry  pollution abatement through process  
modification 
Drs.  Chang,  McKean, Gratzl and Davey:  Slow-release fertilizer  from pulping  
waste. 
G.A. Hammon: Development  of  a system  of determining  the capacity  of water 
resources  to support  various types and combinations of recreation use. 
10 
D.L. Holley: Economic  assessment of hardwood production  
L.G. Jervis;  Growth response of pine  to bedding  practices  in the Piedmont 
J.O. Lammi: Management  characteristics of urban green 3pace  
Drs.  Levi,  McKean and Gratzl:  Projection of wood products  against  fire,  
decay  and insect hazard with brccinated lignin  preparations  
T.E. Maki: Bedding,  ditching  or  furrowing,  and fertilizing effect  on growth  
of pines  on wetland sites  
T.E. Maki: Drainage,  site preparation  and improvement  for reforestation on  
pocosin  lands 
T.E. Maki; Economic evaluation of changes  in land use of a municipal water  
shed as a guide to decision-making  
T.E. Maki: Productivity  of lower Piedmont forest  land for pines  and hardwoods 
T.E. .'Maki, W.  L. Hafley  and J.W. Duffield: Performance of out-planted  stock  
from forest tree nurseries 
W.T. McKean: Elimination of odour in kraft pulping  
A.G. Mullin: Prototype  computerized  rough-end  system  in the furniture 
industry  
A.G. Mullin: Study  of optimum sequence of cutting  bills 
C.N. Rogers:  Water re-use  in pulp  and paper manufacturing  
D.H. Steensen and J. Hedgecock:  Wood-residue production  and feasability  
of conversion to a saleable product  
J.L. Warren and J.O. Lammi: Utilization of urban green space for the 
alleviation of air pollution 
C.W.  Welby  and J.O. Lammi: Utilization  of the earth resources  technology  
satellite - Data in geological  evaluation,  regional  planning,  forest 
management  and water management  in North Carolina. 
Fuller details about the computerized  rough  mill project, on which A.G. Mullin 
and A.J, Barr are  working,  are  as follows: 
A grant  for the design  fabrication of a "computerized  rough  mill system"  wsa 
recerved.  in March,  1971  
>
 from the National Association of Furniture Manufac  
turers. The purpose of the system  is  to improve  the yield of usable-dimeasion 
stock from hardwood lumber. Previous research at the School of Forest  
Resources indicates that approximately  10% of the cost of lumber can  be 
saved  by  using such a system.  The savings  come from better utilization of 
the lumber, and because the manufacturer can cut lower grades without serious  
ly reducing  production.  If is  estimated that the system  will save  the furni  
ture industry millions of dollars annually.  
11 
The computerized  rough-end  incorporates  the following:  (1 )  lumber defects 
are marked with reflective paint  and are subsequently  located using a 
computer-driven  optical  scanner; (2) the location of defects is  fed into a 
mini-computer,  programmed to determine the "best" way of cutting  up the 
board for the particular  company's  dimension-stock requirements;  and (3)  
the computer  then drives a coding  device that marks  each board for cutting.  
The system  is designed  for use  in existing  rough  mills.  The boards,  coded 
for  cutting, will be cut manually.  However,  the system  could be modified 
to drive automated saws.  
Forestry  Week  
The 44th Forestry  Week, organized  annually  by  the Finnish Forestry  Association,  
took place  in Helsinki  from 20th to 23rd  March. The opening  address,  held in 
the new Finlandia Hall and televised,  was given  on 21st  by  Lasse Heikin  
heimo. He spoke  on "Labour-force and social-policy  challenges  of mechani  
zation in forestry". On 22nd,  he addressed the Swedish-language  Forestry  Day 
was 
at the Scientific  Societies'Juilding,  where his topic '"The economics of 
primary production  in forestry." The following  day, he had a radio interview 
for the Oulu regional  station. The week also featured the reunion lunches 
of former forestry  students,  held in restaurants all over Helsinki on 22nd. 
Multiple Use of Forests Planning  Group  
A planning  group to plan  and co-ordinate research  within the Institute on  
the multiple use  of forests was established at the beginning  of this year. 
The chairman is Lasse Heikinheimo and the secretary  Olli  Saastamoinen. Jan 
Heino is the third member of the group from our Department.  In addition 
it includes representatives  from the Departments  of Peatland Forestry,  
Silviculture,  Forest Inventory  and Yield,  and Forest Technology,  from the 
Nature Conservation Office and from the Rovaniemi Forest Experiment  Station. 
The group has recently completed  a preliminary  report  outlining  research 
undertaken so far and research planned in this field both within and out  
side the Institute. The report is stencilled and is entitled "Metsäntutkimus  
laitoksen ja sen ulkopuolisten  laitosten metsien moninaiskäyttöön  ja ympä  
ristönsuojeluun  liittyvästä  tutkimuksesta"  (Research  on the multiple use  of  
forests and nature conservation undertaken at the Forest Research Institute 
and other institutes).  
12 
Agricultural Economics Research  Institute 
Eleven members of the Department  spent  the morning  of  12th April  as guests  
of the Agricultural  Economics Research Institute  at Malminkartano, on the 
edge of Helsinki. Professor Matias Torvela,  Head of the Department  of Land 
Management,  Dr.  Risto  Ihamuotila,  Head of the Department of Agricultural  
Policy  and Marketing,  and the other researchers of the Institute outlined 
their research programme, and afterwords there was an opportunity  for  
discussion over an excellent lunch. The Institute,  which has  a total 
personnel  of about 30,  forms a part of the Agricultural  Research Centre,  
a State research institution. 
Environmental change in the Finnish archipelago 
The natural and environmental problems  ansing from the rapid changes  
currently  taking place  in the Finnish archipelago  were  discussed at a 
weekend seminar held on 18th and 19th March  at Helsinki  University's  zoo  
logical  Research Station at Tvärminne. The meeting  was arranged  by  Norden  
skiöld  -  Samfundet (The Nordenskiöld Society),  which is planning  to publish  
a book dealing  with these problems. Michael Jones, from our Department,  and 
Pekka Borg,  from the Institute's Nature Conservation Office, both attended 
Personnel changes  
Katarina Salo joined the Department  at the beginning  of April  as assistant  
to Professor  Heikinheimo. She will be working  here until September,  when she 
will begin  studying  forestry  at Helsinki University.  She speaks  fluent 
Russian and has recently  returned from Leningrad,  where she studied for 
six months at the Leningrad  Forest Academy.  
Jaakko Salo is  working in the Department  during April.  He is  editing hitherto 
unpublished  departmental  research investigations,  ready  for publication.  
Congratulations  
Matti Heikinheimo is now  a Master of Political  Science (valtiotieteiden  
or YTK in Finnish).  He received his papers on 10th April.  
13 
Miscellaneous news 
Olli Saastamoinen was  in Rovaniemi from 7th to 13th April  collecting  
material about reindeer husbandry  for his project  on land-use alternatives 
in the Saariselkä-Itäkaira  region.  
Hannu Vehviläinen has just been awarded 4 000 marks from the Kyösti  Haataja 
Fund. This will  enable him to start  work in May on his  new  project dealing  
with rural labour-force reserves  in the Finnish development  areas. SITRA 
(the Finnish Independence  Fund) has also allocated funds for the project.  
Terho Huttunen will be spending  1-g- months
,
 starting  on 24th  April, trav  
elling  around Finland to interview the managers of 30 pulp,  veneer and 
board factories.  He will  be investigating  possible causes  of errors, 
resulting  from the introduction of mechanized methods in timber harvesting,  
in the wood-consumption  quantities reported  for the Industrial  Statistics.  
He also wants to find out the size  of possible  errors and means of  
diminishing  them. 
Working Saturdays  
Despite  some initial confusion,  it seems we have to work two extra Saturdays  
to make up for the Ascension Day  and Whit Monday holidays.  The working  
Saturdays  will  be April  22rd and May 13th. 
Pilfered 
Murphy's  Law,  which appeared  in the January  issue of the Newsletter,  was  
quoted,  with due acknowledgement,  in the February  issue of the Ministry  of  
Labour Planning  Division's  publication  "Labour Reports".  What they  didn't 
know was  that we pinched it from the Ministry  of Education" -  who, we  hear,  
stole it in turn from the Ministry for Foreign  Affairs.  
14 
Guide to Finglish abbreviations 
For the benefit of readers of English-language  articles  published  in Finland,  
we  publish  an explanatory  guide to some of the curious  abbreviations you 
may come across; 
Newsletter distributions this issue 
Department
'
 41  
Finland (including  rest of Institute) 149 
Abroad 155 
345  
Foreign  distribution courtesy  of Postipankki  
Fmglxsh  
abbreviation 
Explanation  
ab. about (not to be  confused, with A.B. -  able-bodied seaman)  
a • O • and others,  among others 
appr., approx. approximately  
as  o  • y a.s.o. and so  on  
B.F. Bachelor of Forestry  (not  Bloody  Fool)  
cl.  class 
6 • 1/  • C i  etc.  
f.  ex.  for example,  e.g. 
f.  i.  for instance 
f  .r. Forest road 
i.a. inter alia (not to  be thought  a misprint of i.e.)  
imp. op. improvement  operation  
md  man-day s 
nso : Finnish for no.  
pes pieces  ( = no.), per cents (Finglish  plural  of  jer oent)