RESEARCH ARTICLE
Climate change, cultural continuity and ecological grief: Insights
from the Sa´mi Homeland
Inkeri Markkula , Minna Turunen, Taru Rikkonen,
Sirpa Rasmus, Veina Koski, Jeffrey M. Welker
Received: 25 September 2023 / Revised: 8 January 2024 / Accepted: 18 March 2024 / Published online: 13 April 2024
 The Author(s) 2024
Abstract Arctic regions are warming significantly faster
than other parts of the globe, leading to changes in snow,
ice and weather conditions, ecosystems and local cultures.
These changes have brought worry and concern and
triggered feelings of loss among Arctic Indigenous
Peoples and local communities. Recently, research has
started to address emotional and social dimensions of
climate change, framed through the concept of ecological
grief. In this study, we examine sociocultural impacts of
climate change and expressions of ecological grief among
members of reindeer herding communities in the Sa´mi
Homeland in Finland. Results indicate that ecological grief
is felt in connection to major environmental concerns in the
area: changes in winter weather and extreme weather
events, Atlantic salmon decline and land use changes,
which all have cultural and social consequences. Our
results indicate that ecological grief is strongly associated
with ecological losses, but also with political decisions
regarding natural resource governance.
Keywords Atlantic salmon  Climate change 
Ecological grief  Environmental change 
Reindeer herding  Sa´mi Homeland
INTRODUCTION
Arctic regions are warming four times faster than the
global average (Rantanen et al. 2022), and warming has
already caused significant changes in local weather, snow
and ice conditions (Bailey et al. 2021), ecosystems and
species communities (AMAP 2017; Buchwal et al. 2020).
Alterations in climate and ecosystems are increasingly
affecting the lives of Arctic Indigenous Peoples and local
communities, whose livelihoods and cultures depend on
seasonal cycles of fisheries and wildlife, pre-
dictable weather patterns and ecosystem health (Cunsolo
et al. 2013, 2015; Jaakkola et al. 2018; Richert et al. 2021).
A growing and shared concern is felt among Arctic peoples
that the world they once knew no longer exists, and global
climate change is increasingly embedded within their
everyday experiences (Cunsolo and Ellis 2018; Watt-
Cloutier 2018).
Previous studies have documented how climate change
can cause disruptions to place attachment among Indige-
nous Peoples and local communities who live in close
relationship with the surrounding nature, as well as loss of
cultural identity and traditional ways of knowing when
traditional knowledge becomes outdated (Cunsolo et al.
2012, 2013, 2015). Alterations in weather patterns, snow
and ice conditions, degradation of ecosystems and regional
decline in native plant and animal species have been
associated with a decrease in well-being and an increase in
stress and despair in particular among Indigenous Peoples’
communities (e.g., Jaakkola et al. 2018; Cunsolo et al.
2020). A recent study conducted in the Nunatsiavut region
in Canada found significant relations between warmer
temperatures (i.e., above -5 C) and increased incidence
rate of daily mental health-related clinic visits among Inuit
population (Middleton et al. 2021).
New concepts related to peoples’ lived experiences of
climate change have emerged in research and public dis-
course, including climate change worry, eco-anxiety,
solastalgia, climate grief and ecological grief (Ojala et al.
2021). According to Cunsolo and Ellis (2018), ecological
grief is a natural response to ecological degradation and
loss, especially among people whose lives and cultures are
entwined with the natural environment. Ecological grief
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-024-02012-9
has been defined as ‘‘the grief felt in relation to experienced
or anticipated ecological losses, including the loss of spe-
cies, ecosystems and meaningful landscapes due to acute or
chronic environmental change’’ (Cunsolo and Ellis 2018).
The concept of ecological grief can be used to reveal
personal and collective responses to ecological loss, to
define what climate-related losses matter to local people,
and to identify ways of coping with emotions arising from
climate change and ecological loss (Cunsolo and Ellis
2018; Ojala et al. 2021).
Previous research has documented ecological grief in
relation to climate change among Indigenous Peoples and
farmers in different parts of the world (e.g., Cunsolo 2012;
Cunsolo et al. 2012; Ellis and Albrecht 2017; Amoak et al.
2023). In the Arctic region, ecological grief in relation to
warming temperatures and sea ice degradation (Cunsolo
2012; Cunsolo et al. 2012, 2013, 2015; Durkalec et al.
2015), forest fires (Dodd et al. 2018) and decline in caribou
populations (Cunsolo et al. 2020) has been reported from
Northern parts of Canada and Greenland. To date, the
concept has not been applied to research conducted in other
parts of the Arctic. Moreover, grief experienced in
response to ecological losses is often left unconsidered in
climate change narratives, policy and research (Cunsolo
and Ellis 2018). According to Cunsolo and Landman
(2017), thinking with and through ecological grief has
potential to change ethical and political discussions of
climate change. Grieving is also a common practice shared
across cultures, and addressing ecological grief can shed
light on cultural, spiritual and intangible values and
meanings, which often receive little attention in studies on
climate change impacts, as well as in land-use planning and
decision-making processes (see, e.g., Reyes-Garcia et al.
2019; Howard 2020).
This study focuses on expressions of ecological grief
among reindeer herders in the Sa´mi Homeland in Finland,
where climate change and land use conflicts pose major—
and growing—challenge for the continuity of traditional
livelihoods and Sa´mi culture (Jaakkola et al. 2018).
Warming has been rapid in the area over the past three
decades, particularly in winter, and recent years have seen
repeated extreme winter weather events, including, e.g.,
exceptional snow depths and repeated freeze-thaw cycles,
alterations in ecosystems, decline in culturally important
species and invasion of alien fauna in the Sa´mi Homeland
region (Luomaranta et al. 2019; Markkula et al. 2019;
Kumpula et al. 2020, 2022).
The Sa´mi Homeland is a legally defined, traditional
home region of the Sa´mi. The Constitution of Finland (731/
1999) secures the Sa´mi people’s right to maintain and
develop their own language and culture, including reindeer
herding and other traditional livelihoods such as fishing,
hunting, gathering and handicrafts. Discussion on
Indigenous Sa´mi rights to land and waters has been going
on for a long time in Finland (Joona 2020). Most of the
land in the Sa´mi Homeland continues to be state-owned,
and the traditional livelihoods need to compete with other
land uses, including forestry, tourism, mining and wind
power, making their adaptation to climate change even
more challenging (e.g., Landauer et al. 2021).
In this study, we first address observed environmental
changes and their sociocultural impacts, more precisely,
impacts on cultural continuity and well-being, in the Sa´mi
Homeland. Second, we examine how ecological grief is
expressed by reindeer herders and members of Sa´mi
community, whose lives and livelihoods are closely con-
nected to a rapidly changing environment. Our study is
based on interviews and a public participatory geographic
information system (PPGIS) survey conducted in two
municipalities in Northern Finland.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Research area
This study was conducted in two municipalities in North-
ern Finland: Inari (Aanaar in Sa´mi language) and Utsjoki
(Ohcejohka). The study area belongs to the subarctic region
and is situated in the specific reindeer herding area and
within the Sa´mi Homeland (Fig. 1). The reindeer herding
area in Finland currently consists of 54 reindeer herding
cooperatives, ten of which are situated in the study area:
Kaldoaivi, Paistunturi Muotkatunturi, Hammastunturi,
Ivalo, Na¨a¨ta¨mo¨, Va¨tsa¨ri, Muddusja¨rvi, Sallivaara and
Paatsjoki.
Environmental concerns in the area
Climate change
Impacts of climate change are experienced in the study
area particularly in winter. The length and characteristics
of seasons, the duration of snow cover, and the amount and
structure of snow have all changed over the last decades,
the average temperature has risen by 2.3 C since the post-
industrial period, and the snow-free season is becoming
longer (Luomaranta et al. 2019; Rasmus et al. 2020). In
recent years, reindeer herders in the study area have needed
to cope with extremely difficult snow conditions. Excep-
tional snow depths during winter 2019–2020 led to 15 000
reindeer deaths, and during winter 2021–2022 pasture
conditions were unusually difficult in some parts of the
study area due to basal ice and mold formation (Kumpula
et al. 2020, 2022).
123 www.kva.se/en
1204 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
One significant environmental change that the area has
experienced is the decline of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
populations in the River Teno (Deatnu) over the last dec-
ade. Reasons behind the decline include rising sea water
temperatures, changes in salmon prey distributions, over-
fishing and fish farming in the Barents Sea (e.g., Czorlich
et al 2022; Dadswell et al 2022). The River Teno, which
runs through the Utsjoki municipality, along the border of
Finland and Norway, is one of the most significant
spawning rivers for Atlantic salmon in Europe (Hiedanpa¨a¨
et al. 2020). Fishing has a long tradition in the area, and
Atlantic salmon fishing is a foundational part of Sa´mi
culture. Many reindeer herders practice fishing during the
summer months as an economic or subsistence activity, and
Atlantic salmon has a high economic importance for the
Utsjoki municipality (Knuuttila et al. 2020). In 2017, the
governments of Finland and Norway ratified a fishing
agreement (Teno Fishing Act 2017) in order to halt the
decline of Atlantic salmon by reducing fishing volumes by
30%. The regulations were received with concern and
anger among the Sa´mi population, who found them unfair
and harmful for the Sa´mi fishing culture (Hiedanpa¨a¨ et al.
2020), feeling that their views are not adequately consid-
ered and that their traditional knowledge was not valued in
resource governance of the river (Holmberg 2018). How-
ever, the Teno Fishing Act did not halt the decline in
Atlantic salmon populations, and in 2021, Finland and
Norway agreed on a temporary fishing ban for Atlantic
salmon on the River Teno. The decision was opposed by
the Sa´mi parliament of Finland. In their statement, the
Sa´mi parliament noted that a complete fishing ban violated
the rights of the Sa´mi under the Constitution of Finland to
maintain and develop their culture (Finnish Constitution
§17, 1999), and suggested that the restrictive measures
should primarily be directed at sport salmon fishing rather
than at traditional fishing (Sa´mi parliament 2021). In
summer of the same year, a dramatic increase in pink
salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha)—an invasive species—
took place in the River Teno. By summer 2023, the pink
Fig. 1 Research area. Map: Arto Vitikka, Arctic Centre, University of Lapland. Data sources: Arctic Indigenous languages and revitalization: an
online educational resource (2023). Language speaker areas map and dataset (https://arctic-indigenous-languages-uito.hub.arcgis.com/), Palsa
mires, Wilderness areas, SYKE: Luontotyyppien levinneisyyden raportointiaineisto (2019). Geometridae damages, Yla¨-Lapin kaukokartoi-
tushanke (2023)
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1205
salmon population had reached 100 000, outnumbering the
native Atlantic salmon (YLE 2023).
Land use
Forestry in the Sa´mi Homeland has been concentrated in
the municipality of Inari, and there is a long history of
forest conflicts between Metsa¨hallitus (the Finnish Forest
Administration) and reindeer herders (Jokinen 2014). The
main conflicts were settled in 2009–2010, when
Metsa¨hallitus agreed with Sa´mi reindeer herders to keep
important reindeer pasture areas free from logging (Jokinen
2014; Sarkki et al. 2022). Metsa¨hallitus has also decided
not to start mining or wind power projects in the Sa´mi
Homeland until 2027. However, although the relations
between reindeer herders and Metsa¨hallitus have improved,
some degree of controversy and tension remains between
the private owners of forests and reindeer herders in the
area (Sarkki et al. 2022).
Mineral prospecting is conducted in the Sa´mi Home-
land, but it has not been developed into a large-scale
mining industry. However, the mineral prospecting con-
ducted earlier continues to cause negative affect and
emotions in reindeer herders, including increasing concern
of young herders for their future. Also, the rapid expansion
of tourism into wilderness is problematic from the per-
spective of reindeer herding, because it increases uncon-
trollable traffic on pasture lands, disturbs reindeer and
causes conflicts with reindeer herding (Turunen et al. 2016
unpubl.).
Interviews
We conducted interviews in two herding cooperatives in
the study area: Kaldoaivi (Ga´lddoaivi) in Utsjoki and
Muotkatunturi (Muotkeduoddar) in Inari between January
and December 2022 (Table 1). Our interview material
consists of 11 conversational in-depth interviews, and 8
interviews conducted as part of a facilitated PPGIS survey.
Four participants took part in both interviews, and thus, the
total number of participants was 15. Themes of the inter-
views were the following: observations of environmental
changes, extreme weather events and snow conditions;
impacts of environmental changes, and extreme weather
events on participants’ lives and their future perceptions
regarding reindeer herding and Sa´mi culture; land use and
land use-related conflicts. With the participants from Kal-
doaivi, the impacts of Teno river fishing ban on their lives,
fishing traditions and cultural continuity were also
discussed.
Twelve of the participants were male and three were
female, aged between 19 and 65. Reindeer herding was the
main occupation for 11 participants, while 4 had permanent
jobs elsewhere, for example in education or communal
services. Also, many of the participants with herding as the
main occupation had part-time jobs, for example seasonal
jobs in tourism. All participants had been involved in
reindeer herding since childhood. They also actively
practiced other traditional livelihoods for subsistence, such
as cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus) picking and fishing.
For most participants from Kaldoaivi, Atlantic salmon
fishing was a very important cultural and leisure activity
and had provided subsistence during summer, but none of
the participants earned a living from fishing. Some par-
ticipants had practiced willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lago-
pus) trapping before, but had given up on it as willow
ptarmigan populations had declined.
The interviews lasted between 30 min and two hours,
with an average duration of one hour each. The interviews
were conducted in person or via Teams by the authors (IM,
VK, TR), audio recorded (with the exception of one case,
where the participant did not want to have the interview
recorded, and written notes were taken instead) and tran-
scribed. The quotes from the interview transcripts pre-
sented in this article and accompanying table were
translated by the authors from Finnish, the language of the
Table 1 Characteristics of the two herding districts where interviews were conducted
Kaldoaivi Muotkatunturi
Surface area 2411 km2 2580 km2
No of reindeer owners 86 99
Highest allowed no of reindeer* 5300 6800
Protected areas Kaldoaivi wilderness area Lemmenjoki national park
Muotkatunturi wilderness area
Common habitats Mountain birch forests and heaths Mountain birch forests and heaths
Aapa and palsa mires Aapa mires
Salix scrubs Pine forests in the southern part
*Reindeer Herders Association 2023
123 www.kva.se/en
1206 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
interviews. The participants were informed about the aim
of the study and about how the data will be used, and
consent was obtained.
PPGIS survey
The PPGIS survey was carried out using the Maptionnaire
platform, a map-based online survey tool (new.maption-
naire.com). Information about the PPGIS survey and the
survey link was distributed three times via email to the
reindeer herders in Inari by the Reindeer Herders’ Asso-
ciation, two times in the local newspaper Inarilainen and a
couple of times in social media (Facebook groups). The
PPGIS survey included questions regarding land use con-
flicts and solutions, environmental change, appreciation of
local environment and impacts of the COVID-19 pan-
demic. The relevance of the survey questions was tested by
reindeer herders and other Sa´mi actors. Respondents were
asked, for example, to mark on the maps areas where they
have observed different kinds of environmental changes
and areas where there are land use conflicts. Space for
open-ended answers was provided. Respondents marked
only a few areas with environmental changes on the map,
and due to the low number of markings, we decided not to
study the geographic locations marked by the respondents
of the survey. However, in their open-ended answers,
participants described the changes extensively and we thus
use the open-ended answers to two questions of the survey
as research material: 1. Have you observed changes in the
environment of your herding district in a particular area or
place during your lifetime? Please describe the change(s).
What do you think is the reason for these changes? 2. What
are the things in your community, reindeer herding district
or in the environment of the district, that you appreciate the
most, and you hope will still be there for future
generations?
A total of 58 herders, most of them Sa´mi, participated in
the survey. Of this total, 50 respondents completed the
questionnaire online and 8 took part in the facilitated sur-
vey and interview. However, not all participants answered
all questions. We used 35 open-ended answers to the above
questions as material for this study, which includes the
answers of the 8 interview participants.
Analysis of interviews and PPGIS survey responses
The interviews and PPGIS survey responses were analyzed
using qualitative thematic content analysis through which
we aimed to gain an interpretative understanding of the
material. First, we formulated three themes, which arose
from our research aims: 1) Observed environmental chan-
ges; 2) Impacts of environmental changes on cultural
continuity and well-being; 3) Expressions of ecological
grief. We then examined the interview material to identify
descriptions that represented these aspects. Second, we
used deductive category application for the material
regarding expressions of ecological grief and sought
descriptions of each category. First, three pathways to
ecological grief, defined by Cunsolo and Ellis (2018), were
used as previously formulated, theoretically derived
aspects of analysis (Table 2, categories 1–3). After ana-
lyzing the material, we identified a fourth category, which
emerged from the interview material: grief associated with
lack of decision-making power regarding natural resource
governance, in particular decision-making related to spe-
cies protection and land use. We then added this category
to our category application. Our concept of environmental
changes encompasses changes in weather, snow and ice
conditions, alterations in landscapes and ecosystems as
well as in species compositions, including decline in native
species and alien species invasions.
RESULTS
Participants identified numerous environmental changes,
which have impacts on Sa´mi culture, and connections to
well-being (Table 3). Ecological grief was expressed in
connection to all major environmental concerns in the area:
changes in winter weather and extreme weather events,
Atlantic salmon decline and land use (Table 4), and was
strongly associated with culture and ways of life which
depend on nature.
Based on the results, the study area has undergone
multiple environmental changes in recent years and dec-
ades, and their impacts on reindeer herding are many: moth
outbreaks, tree line shifts and the associated spread of pine
change pasture qualities; extreme weather events prevent
reindeer from digging for food, and thinning of ice in lakes
and rivers changes reindeer movement and migration
routes. Under extreme weather conditions, such as unusu-
ally thick snow covers, repeated freeze–thaw cycles and
ground ice, extensive supplementary feeding of reindeer is
needed, which increases the workload or reindeer herders
and the costs of herding. Combined with losses of reindeer
in extreme winters, the economic impact is significant.
Moreover, unpredictability in weather causes both acute
and long-term stress. When it is not possible to predict the
weather conditions, herders feel that they need to be
‘‘prepared for everything’’. At the same time, there is a
growing concern over the future of reindeer herding as a
livelihood. When interviews took place, the participants
had just experienced two winters which were very difficult
for reindeer herding: many participants described the
winter 2019–2020 as the snowiest they had ever seen and
the winter 2021–2022 as the most difficult in their whole
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1207
lifetime. These extreme winter weather events, together
with more gradual changes in winter weather, evoked grief
over loss of traditional knowledge and grief associated with
anticipated future losses among the participants (categories
2 and 3, Table 2). Winters 2019–20 and 2021–22 were seen
as harbinger of future by the participants and evoked fear
over the future of reindeer herding as a source of liveli-
hood. Most of them had been wondering whether reindeer
herding still exists 20 years from now. Some of the par-
ticipants expressed concerns that consideration of com-
bined impacts of climate change, land use and economic
issues may make reindeer herding as a livelihood appear as
an impossible or undesirable way of life for younger
generations.
Climate change and land use were seen as the greatest
threats to the continuity of the reindeer herding livelihood.
One of the participants described how land use, e.g., for-
estry, plans for a railway, windfarms or mine construction
‘‘impact your whole existence’’ and ‘‘can create an exis-
tential crisis’’ (Table 4). Participants emphasized that cli-
mate change and land use can have significant combined
effects on reindeer herding. One example is the combined
effect of logging and extreme winter weather events. Epi-
phytic lichen growing in old-growth forests are important
source of winter forage for reindeer, particularly in winters
when deep and hard snow or ground—ice conditions pre-
vent reindeer from digging for food. Logging in old-growth
forests leads to a decrease in winter forage for reindeer and
makes adaptation to extreme winter weather events even
more difficult. Results also indicate that even test drilling
for ore and land use plans which are still at the planning
phase have a negative impact on well-being as they
increase the ‘‘load of worries’’.
Land use and Atlantic salmon decline evoked grief
associated with physical ecological losses, losses of tradi-
tional knowledge and practices and anticipated future los-
ses among the participants (Categories 1–3, Table 4).
Participants expressed sadness, deep emotional attachment
to the Atlantic salmon and feelings of inequality in the face
of the fishing restrictions. Atlantic salmon population
decline and the following fishing ban, which came into
force in summer 2021, were strongly reflected in the
expressions of ecological grief among Kaldoaivi herders.
Participants reported melancholy and physical distress.
Grief over loss of cultural practices anticipated future
losses were evident: I am afraid that the traditional fishing
practices will disappear, soon there will be no one left to
practice them (Table 4). The Atlantic salmon fishing ban
also caused anticipatory grief connected to the future of
reindeer herding as a livelihood, which is well illustrated
by this quote from a young herder: I’ve been thinking about
it a lot, whether reindeer herding will even exist in
20 years. It is hard to say. It is possible that climate change
will ruin it all, if bad winters become frequent, or someone
just decides to prohibit reindeer herding, or they make
herding very difficult. […]I mean, they suddenly prohibited
fishing too (see the full quote in Table 4). This quote
embodies the interconnectedness of everything: the tradi-
tional livelihoods are all part of local life and culture,
bound to each other and to the current social and political
environment.
Given the high number of answers expressing anxiety
caused by the fishing ban and land use decisions, we added
a fourth ecological grief category to our study: grief
associated with lack of decision-making power regarding
natural resource governance (Category 4; Tables 2, 4).
Regarding the fishing ban, participants found it necessary
to regulate Atlantic salmon fishing on River Teno, as they
had witnessed the population decline themselves. However,
at the same time, they felt that the total fishing ban was just
another political decision that would weaken the rights of
the Sa´mi as an Indigenous people: It [fishing ban] is part of
the injustice against Sa´mi people that is evident every-
where. The fishing ban was construed as part of a historical
continuum of resource use and fishing politics concerning
River Teno.
Table 2 Categories of ecological grief used in this study. Categories 1–3 from Cunsolo and Ellis (2018), category 4 emerged from the interview
material
Category Description
1. Grief associated with physical ecological
losses
Grief emerging from the physical disappearance of landscape and ecosystem degradation and
decline/loss of species and attendant ways of life and culture
2. Grief associated with loss of environmental
knowledge
Grief associated with loss of environmental knowledge. In indigenous people’s context, loss of
their traditional ecological knowledge. In our analysis, we also included grief associated
with loss of traditional practices in this category
3. Grief associated with anticipated future losses Anticipatory grief for ecological changes that have not yet happened, including, in particular,
grief over future losses of culture, livelihoods and ways of life
4. Grief associated with lack of power in
environmental decision-making
Grief associated with the lack of power regarding natural resource governance, e.g., decision-
making regarding species protection and land use planning
123 www.kva.se/en
1208 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
T
a
b
le
3
O
b
se
rv
ed
en
v
ir
o
n
m
en
ta
l
ch
an
g
es
,
cu
lt
u
ra
l
im
p
ac
ts
an
d
co
n
n
ec
ti
o
n
s
to
w
el
l-
b
ei
n
g
E
n
v
ir
o
n
m
en
ta
l
ch
an
g
e
C
u
lt
u
ra
l/
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
im
p
ac
t
C
o
n
n
ec
ti
o
n
to
w
el
l-
b
ei
n
g
Q
u
o
te
s
M
o
re
fr
eq
u
en
t
ex
tr
em
e
w
in
te
r
w
ea
th
er
ev
en
ts
R
ei
n
d
ee
r
h
er
d
in
g
g
et
s
m
o
re
d
if
fi
cu
lt
:
th
er
e
is
in
cr
ea
se
in
h
er
d
er
s’
w
o
rk
lo
ad
an
d
co
st
s
w
h
en
in
te
n
si
v
e
w
in
te
r
su
p
p
le
m
en
ta
ry
fe
ed
in
g
is
n
ee
d
ed
S
tr
es
s
d
u
e
to
in
cr
ea
se
d
w
o
rk
lo
ad
an
d
co
n
ce
rn
s
o
v
er
th
e
fu
tu
re
o
f
re
in
d
ee
r
h
er
d
in
g
as
so
u
rc
e
o
f
li
v
el
ih
o
o
d
‘‘
W
e
h
ad
to
ta
k
e
re
in
d
ee
r
in
w
in
te
r
en
cl
o
su
re
s
fo
r
o
n
e
m
o
n
th
ea
rl
ie
r
th
an
u
su
al
ly
[…
]
an
d
k
ee
p
th
em
th
er
e
fo
r
o
n
e
m
o
n
th
lo
n
g
er
th
an
n
o
rm
al
ly
.
W
e
n
ee
d
ed
to
ex
p
an
d
th
e
en
cl
o
su
re
an
d
to
b
u
y
to
n
s
o
f
fo
ra
g
e.
’’
‘‘
W
in
te
r
2
0
2
1
–
2
0
w
as
th
e
h
ar
d
es
t
in
m
y
li
fe
.’’
‘‘
T
h
er
e
is
n
o
ti
m
e
to
b
e
w
it
h
m
y
fa
m
il
y
in
w
in
te
rt
im
e.
’’
U
n
p
re
d
ic
ta
b
il
it
y
in
w
ea
th
er
,
in
p
ar
ti
cu
la
r
in
w
in
te
r
R
ei
n
d
ee
r
h
er
d
in
g
g
et
s
m
o
re
d
if
fi
cu
lt
.
H
er
d
er
s
h
av
e
to
b
e
p
re
p
ar
ed
‘‘
fo
r
ev
er
y
th
in
g
’’
S
tr
es
s
d
u
e
to
u
n
ce
rt
ai
n
ty
in
w
ea
th
er
an
d
sn
o
w
co
n
d
it
io
n
s
an
d
im
p
ac
ts
o
n
h
er
d
in
g
.
U
n
p
re
d
ic
ta
b
il
it
y
ca
u
se
s
co
n
ce
rn
o
v
er
th
e
fu
tu
re
o
f
h
er
d
in
g
li
v
el
ih
o
o
d
‘‘
T
em
p
er
at
u
re
s
g
o
u
p
an
d
d
o
w
n
,
it
ca
n
b
e
-
2
0
C
o
r
-
3
0
C
to
d
ay
an
d
ar
o
u
n
d
ze
ro
to
m
o
rr
o
w
.
T
h
at
h
as
ch
an
g
ed
a
lo
t.
L
ik
e
n
o
w
,
w
ea
th
er
fo
re
ca
st
fo
r
to
m
o
rr
o
w
is
-
1
5
C
an
d
d
ay
af
te
r
to
m
o
rr
o
w
?
4
C
d
eg
re
es
.’
’
‘‘
S
n
o
w
co
n
d
it
io
n
s
h
av
e
ch
an
g
ed
so
m
u
ch
.
Y
o
u
n
o
lo
n
g
er
k
n
o
w
w
h
at
y
o
u
g
et
an
d
w
h
en
.’
’
T
re
e
li
n
e
sh
if
t
to
h
ig
h
er
el
ev
at
io
n
s
an
d
sp
re
ad
o
f
p
in
e
C
h
an
g
es
in
la
n
d
sc
ap
e
an
d
re
in
d
ee
r
p
as
tu
re
s.
O
p
en
tu
n
d
ra
is
an
im
p
o
rt
an
t
fo
ra
g
in
g
h
ab
it
at
fo
r
re
in
d
ee
r
an
d
p
ro
v
id
es
re
li
ef
fr
o
m
in
se
ct
s
d
u
ri
n
g
su
m
m
er
N
o
d
ir
ec
t
li
n
k
to
w
el
l-
b
ei
n
g
.
H
o
w
ev
er
,
d
ec
li
n
e
in
p
o
p
u
la
ti
o
n
s
o
f
cu
lt
u
ra
ll
y
im
p
o
rt
an
t
sp
ec
ie
s
an
d
la
n
d
sc
ap
e
tr
an
sf
o
rm
at
io
n
s
ca
n
le
ad
to
d
et
er
io
ra
ti
o
n
o
f
cu
lt
u
ra
l
ti
es
to
th
e
la
n
d
(s
ee
:
Ja
n
ss
o
n
et
al
.
2
0
1
5
;
M
ar
k
k
u
la
et
al
.
2
0
1
9
)
‘‘
O
p
en
fe
ll
ar
ea
s
h
av
e
b
ee
n
ta
k
en
o
v
er
b
y
b
u
sh
es
.’
’
‘‘
P
in
e
h
as
ro
o
te
d
in
to
fe
ll
ar
ea
s,
tr
ee
li
n
e
is
as
ce
n
d
in
g
.’
’
T
h
aw
in
g
o
f
p
er
m
af
ro
st
h
u
m
m
o
ck
s
in
p
al
sa
m
ir
es
,
an
d
co
n
se
q
u
en
t
d
ec
li
n
e
in
cl
o
u
d
b
er
ry
P
al
sa
h
u
m
m
o
ck
s
ar
e
an
im
p
o
rt
an
t
el
em
en
t
in
th
e
la
n
d
sc
ap
e
C
lo
u
d
b
er
ry
is
th
e
m
o
st
v
al
u
ab
le
n
at
u
ra
l
p
ro
d
u
ct
in
th
e
g
at
h
er
in
g
tr
ad
it
io
n
o
f
th
e
S
a´m
i
w
it
h
h
ig
h
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
im
p
o
rt
an
ce
B
er
ry
p
ic
k
in
g
h
as
m
an
y
p
o
si
ti
v
e
im
p
ac
ts
o
n
w
el
l-
b
ei
n
g
:
b
er
ri
es
p
o
ss
es
s
b
io
ac
ti
v
e
h
ea
lt
h
p
ro
p
er
ti
es
,
an
d
b
er
ry
p
ic
k
in
g
is
an
im
p
o
rt
an
t
cu
lt
u
ra
l
ac
ti
v
it
y
th
at
co
n
tr
ib
u
te
s
to
w
el
l-
b
ei
n
g
o
f
in
d
iv
id
u
al
s
an
d
co
m
m
u
n
it
ie
s
(s
ee
,
e.
g
.,
F
li
n
t
et
al
.
2
0
1
1
;
B
o
u
la
n
g
er
-L
ap
o
in
te
et
al
.
2
0
1
9
)
‘‘
G
o
o
d
cl
o
u
d
b
er
ry
y
ea
rs
ar
e
ra
re
n
o
w
ad
ay
s.
T
h
er
e
ar
e
n
o
m
o
re
cl
o
u
d
b
er
ri
es
in
p
la
ce
s
w
h
er
e
th
ey
u
se
d
to
b
e,
th
ey
u
se
d
to
g
ro
w
o
n
p
al
sa
h
u
m
m
o
ck
s.
’’
‘‘
T
h
er
e
ar
e
n
o
m
o
re
cl
o
u
d
b
er
ri
es
as
th
er
e
u
se
d
to
b
e,
th
e
n
u
m
b
er
s
h
av
e
d
ec
li
n
ed
re
m
ar
k
ab
ly
.
T
h
is
h
as
a
b
ig
im
p
ac
t.
In
th
e
1
9
8
0
s
th
er
e
w
er
e
a
lo
t
o
f
cl
o
u
d
b
er
ri
es
,
y
o
u
co
u
ld
sp
en
d
th
e
w
h
o
le
su
m
m
er
in
o
n
e
b
o
g
,
an
d
y
o
u
co
u
ld
n
ev
er
p
ic
k
al
l
o
f
th
em
.’’
T
h
in
n
in
g
o
f
ic
e
in
la
k
es
an
d
ri
v
er
s
C
h
an
g
e
in
re
in
d
ee
r
p
at
h
s
an
d
m
o
v
em
en
t,
w
in
te
r
fi
sh
in
g
g
et
s
m
o
re
d
if
fi
cu
lt
M
o
re
ac
ci
d
en
ts
d
u
e
to
w
ea
k
ic
e.
T
ra
d
it
io
n
al
k
n
o
w
le
d
g
e
(T
K
)
re
g
ar
d
in
g
ic
e
co
n
d
it
io
n
s
is
n
o
lo
n
g
er
v
al
u
ab
le
,
w
h
ic
h
ca
n
ev
o
k
e
fe
el
in
g
s
o
f
m
el
an
ch
o
ly
in
p
ar
ti
cu
la
r
am
o
n
g
in
d
ig
en
o
u
s
p
eo
p
le
,
as
T
K
is
co
n
n
ec
te
d
to
b
o
th
p
er
so
n
al
id
en
ti
ty
an
d
to
th
e
w
h
o
le
cu
lt
u
ra
l
sy
st
em
o
f
la
n
d
-b
as
ed
k
n
o
w
le
d
g
e
’’
It
is
n
o
lo
n
g
er
p
o
ss
ib
le
to
p
re
d
ic
t
ic
e
co
n
d
it
io
n
s.
It
im
p
ac
ts
m
o
v
em
en
t
o
f
p
eo
p
le
,
w
h
er
e
y
o
u
ca
n
g
o
an
d
w
h
ic
h
w
ay
to
ta
k
e.
W
e
h
av
e
to
g
o
ar
o
u
n
d
th
o
se
la
k
es
,
ri
v
er
s
an
d
m
ir
es
w
h
ic
h
ar
e
n
o
t
fr
o
ze
n
o
r
ar
e
u
n
p
re
d
ic
ta
b
le
.’
’
‘‘
T
h
er
e
is
a
sm
al
l
im
p
ac
t
o
n
h
er
d
in
g
b
ec
au
se
w
e
h
av
e
to
w
ai
t
lo
n
g
er
[i
n
au
tu
m
n
]
to
b
e
ab
le
to
cr
o
ss
ri
v
er
s
w
it
h
re
in
d
ee
r.
’’
M
o
th
o
u
tb
re
ak
s
C
h
an
g
es
in
la
n
d
sc
ap
e.
Im
p
ac
ts
o
n
re
in
d
ee
r
fo
ra
g
e
ar
e
fi
rs
t
p
o
si
ti
v
e
d
u
e
to
in
cr
ea
se
in
g
ra
ss
es
,
b
u
t
o
v
er
ti
m
e
ch
an
g
e
to
n
eg
at
iv
e,
as
th
er
e
is
a
d
ec
re
as
e
in
m
u
sh
ro
o
m
s
an
d
lo
ss
o
f
b
ir
ch
le
av
es
,
an
d
p
in
es
ta
k
e
o
v
er
th
e
m
o
u
n
ta
in
b
ir
ch
fo
re
st
s.
M
o
th
o
u
tb
re
ak
s
ar
e
al
so
li
n
k
ed
to
w
il
lo
w
p
ta
rm
ig
an
d
ec
li
n
e
L
an
d
sc
ap
e
tr
an
sf
o
rm
at
io
n
s
ca
n
le
ad
to
d
et
er
io
ra
ti
o
n
o
f
cu
lt
u
ra
l
ti
es
to
th
e
la
n
d
(s
ee
:
Ja
n
ss
o
n
et
al
.
2
0
1
5
)
C
an
ad
d
to
th
e
cu
m
u
la
ti
v
e
n
eg
at
iv
e
im
p
ac
ts
o
n
re
in
d
ee
r
h
er
d
in
g
an
d
co
n
se
q
u
en
tl
y
to
co
n
ce
rn
s
o
v
er
th
e
fu
tu
re
o
f
th
e
li
v
el
ih
o
o
d
‘‘
A
ft
er
m
o
th
s
h
av
e
ea
te
n
b
ir
ch
,
g
ra
ss
es
an
d
p
in
e
ta
k
e
o
v
er
.
P
in
es
d
o
n
’t
g
ro
w
v
er
y
fa
st
h
er
e
b
u
t
al
re
ad
y
in
te
n
y
ea
rs
th
ey
al
re
ad
y
g
ro
w
q
u
it
e
a
b
it
an
d
af
te
r
fi
ft
y
y
ea
rs
th
er
e
ar
e
n
o
lo
n
g
er
o
p
en
fe
ll
s
b
u
t
fo
re
st
s
[i
n
th
o
se
ar
ea
s
w
h
er
e
m
o
th
o
u
tb
re
ak
s
o
cc
u
rr
ed
].
’’
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1209
DISCUSSION
Climate change, cultural continuity and well-being
Participants, who were either full- or part-time reindeer
herders, considered herding as an essential carrier of Sa´mi
culture, and many of them mentioned that keeping culture
and traditions alive is one of the main motives for being a
herder. At the same time, they estimated that due to
combined effects of climate change and competing land
uses, there will be less herders in the future, and passing
traditions on to future generations will become increasingly
difficult. It also becomes harder to continue with the
herding culture, when the traditional knowledge is no
longer valid, and the traditional grazing areas and routes to
transfer reindeer cannot be used anymore.
Questions of cultural continuity are thus related to
extreme winter weather events, which are getting more
frequent in the warming climate. At the same time, other
traditional livelihoods which contribute to cultural conti-
nuity are affected by climate change. Fishing, willow
ptarmigan trapping and cloudberry picking have long his-
torical roots and can maintain cultural ties to the land (e.g.,
Jansson et al. 2015; Markkula et al. 2019). The first records
of Atlantic salmon fishing in the Teno river valley date
back to the sixteenth century, and fishing is an important
cultural activity, which carries on specific fishing termi-
nology and traditional knowledge regarding weather, water
levels, river ecosystem, fishing practices and beliefs (Sa´mi
Parliament 2021). Against this historical backdrop, the
Atlantic salmon decline and the River Teno fishing ban
represent significant examples of how climate change
impacts cultural continuity.
Previous studies have demonstrated that cultural conti-
nuity is connected to health and wellness benefits, in par-
ticular in Indigenous communities, and is associated with
strong cultural identity, positive identity and self-esteem
(e.g., Wexler 2014; Auger 2016; Kowalczewski and Klein
2018). Cultural continuity can be defined as ‘‘intergenera-
tional cultural connectedness, which is maintained through
intact families and the engagement of elders, who pass
traditions to subsequent generations’’ (Loppie Reading and
Wien 2009). Cultural connectedness, on which cultural
continuity builds, has been defined as ‘‘the extent to which
youth is integrated within his or her native [or Indigenous]
culture’’ (Snowshoe et al. 2014). The current situation of
the River Teno is a good example of disruption of cultural
continuity: the Atlantic salmon fishing culture on the river
is no longer dynamic, and it is very hard, if not impossible,
to pass traditions on to younger generations. These issues
were reflected in the interviews: participants expressed
concern in particular over the well-being of elderly people,
for whom traditional fishing practices are a key element inT
a
b
le
3
co
n
ti
n
u
ed
E
n
v
ir
o
n
m
en
ta
l
ch
an
g
e
C
u
lt
u
ra
l/
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
im
p
ac
t
C
o
n
n
ec
ti
o
n
to
w
el
l-
b
ei
n
g
Q
u
o
te
s
W
il
lo
w
p
ta
rm
ig
an
d
ec
li
n
e
W
il
lo
w
p
ta
rm
ig
an
is
an
im
p
o
rt
an
t
g
am
e
sp
ec
ie
s
in
S
a´m
i
cu
lt
u
ra
l
tr
ad
it
io
n
T
K
re
la
te
d
to
p
ta
rm
ig
an
tr
ap
p
in
g
m
ay
d
im
in
is
h
.
P
ar
ts
o
f
p
ta
rm
ig
an
ar
e
al
so
u
se
d
in
tr
ad
it
io
n
al
h
an
d
ic
ra
ft
s
D
ec
li
n
e
in
cu
lt
u
ra
ll
y
im
p
o
rt
an
t
sp
ec
ie
s
ca
n
le
ad
to
d
et
er
io
ra
ti
o
n
o
f
cu
lt
u
ra
l
ti
es
to
th
e
la
n
d
(s
ee
:
Ja
n
ss
o
n
et
al
.
2
0
1
5
;
M
ar
k
k
u
la
et
al
.
2
0
1
9
).
L
o
ss
o
f
tr
ad
it
io
n
s
an
d
T
K
ca
n
ev
o
k
e
fe
el
in
g
s
o
f
m
el
an
ch
o
ly
‘‘
T
h
er
e’
s
b
ee
n
g
re
at
d
ec
li
n
e.
In
m
y
ch
il
d
h
o
o
d
p
ta
rm
ig
an
w
as
v
er
y
ab
u
n
d
an
t,
an
d
th
er
e
w
er
e
m
an
y
p
eo
p
le
w
h
o
w
er
e
p
ro
fe
ss
io
n
al
p
ta
rm
ig
an
tr
ap
p
er
s.
N
o
w
it
is
n
o
u
se
to
tr
ap
[p
ta
rm
ig
an
],
th
ey
ar
e
so
fe
w
.’
’
A
tl
an
ti
c
sa
lm
o
n
d
ec
li
n
e
A
tl
an
ti
c
sa
lm
o
n
is
a
cu
lt
u
ra
l
k
ey
st
o
n
e
sp
ec
ie
s
in
th
e
ar
ea
P
o
p
u
la
ti
o
n
d
ec
li
n
e
h
as
ca
u
se
d
b
ig
ec
o
n
o
m
ic
lo
ss
es
an
d
co
n
ce
rn
s
o
v
er
th
e
co
n
ti
n
u
it
y
o
f
fi
sh
in
g
cu
lt
u
re
S
tr
es
s,
an
x
ie
ty
an
d
fe
ar
o
v
er
cu
lt
u
ra
l
lo
ss
ca
u
se
d
b
y
th
e
d
ec
li
n
e
o
f
cu
lt
u
ra
l
k
ey
st
o
n
e
sp
ec
ie
s
an
d
b
y
th
e
fi
sh
in
g
b
an
th
at
fo
ll
o
w
ed
‘‘
T
h
er
e
is
so
m
et
h
in
g
b
ig
h
ap
p
en
in
g
in
th
e
[B
ar
en
ts
]
se
a,
m
ay
b
e
th
er
e
is
n
o
m
o
re
p
re
y
fo
r
A
tl
an
ti
c
sa
lm
o
n
,
o
r
th
e
p
re
y
sp
ec
ie
s
h
av
e
m
o
v
ed
to
so
m
ew
h
er
e
el
se
[…
]
T
h
is
m
ig
h
t
h
av
e
h
ap
p
en
ed
b
ec
au
se
se
a
w
at
er
te
m
p
er
at
u
re
s
h
av
e
ri
se
n
.’
’
P
in
k
sa
lm
o
n
in
v
as
io
n
R
iv
er
eu
tr
o
p
h
ic
at
io
n
,
d
ec
li
n
e
in
n
at
iv
e
sp
ec
ie
s
an
d
w
at
er
q
u
al
it
y
.
R
o
tt
in
g
sa
lm
o
n
o
n
ri
v
er
sh
o
re
s
m
ay
al
so
b
ri
n
g
n
ew
/m
o
re
p
re
d
at
o
rs
to
th
e
ar
ea
an
d
ca
n
im
p
ac
t
ae
st
h
et
ic
la
n
d
sc
ap
e
v
al
u
es
F
ea
r
th
at
p
in
k
sa
lm
o
n
w
il
l
ev
en
tu
al
ly
o
v
er
ri
d
e
A
tl
an
ti
c
sa
lm
o
n
in
th
e
R
iv
er
T
en
o
.
P
o
ss
ib
le
im
p
ac
ts
d
u
e
to
eu
tr
o
p
h
ic
at
io
n
/p
o
o
r
w
at
er
q
u
al
it
y
‘‘
P
in
k
sa
lm
o
n
is
so
ab
u
n
d
an
t
n
o
w
.
L
as
t
su
m
m
er
th
e
ri
v
er
sh
o
re
s
w
er
e
fu
ll
o
f
ro
tt
en
sa
lm
o
n
.’
’
123 www.kva.se/en
1210 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
Table 4 Expressions of ecological grief in relation to changing winter weather, extreme weather events, Atlantic salmon decline and other
environmental changes
Change in winter weather and extreme
weather events
Atlantic salmon decline Land use changes
1. Grief associated
with ecological
losses
Winter is no longer winter It was hard mentally. It [Atlantic salmon
decline and the following fishing ban]
made me feel as if I had lost an arm,
because it [fishing] had been with me
since childhood
It [Atlantic salmon decline and following
fishing ban] causes psychological distress
The threat [posed by land use] affects your
mental well-being and your ability to
cope. What I meant that you constantly
need to defend your livelihood
2. Grief associated
with loss of
environmental
knowledge and
cultural practices
You can no longer rely on old ways of
forecasting the weather
Our traditional knowledge about weather,
reindeer movement, pasture use, it is no
longer useful
It has changed so that you no longer know
what comes and when [referring to snow
and winter weather]
Kulkutus [traditional fishing practice] has
almost disappeared already. They
[authorities] managed to stop it when
they passed the time limit. […] I feel
melancholic [about the loss of fishing
traditions]
It [the fishing ban] is a cultural shut-down
But yes, some knowledge regarding
gathering, moving and herding
[reindeer] has already disappeared.
Knowledge regarding natural pasture
rotation and the like. We have to invent
new knowledge all the time and, at the
moment, the old [knowledge] is not seen
as meaningful. It would be useful to
have traditional knowledge, and even
more in the future, but this is where we
are at now
3. Grief associated
with anticipated
future losses
I am very concerned, afraid of what’s
going to happen. Is it possible to
continue [herding] this way. Maybe I
still can but what about the next
generations. Will there be prerequisites
for it [herding]? Will reindeer be able to
live here, or anything or anyone.*
I’ve been thinking about it a lot, whether
reindeer herding will even exist in
20 years. It is hard to say. It is possible
that climate change will ruin it all, if bad
winters become frequent, or someone
just decides to prohibit reindeer herding,
or they make herding very difficult. On
the other hand, I do not see any obstacles,
reasons why young people could not
become herders. Well, there is climate
change, and reindeer herding is a quite
sensitive livelihood…I mean, they
suddenly prohibited fishing too. Many
people here earned their living from
fishing, and it just stopped, in a flash
Future [of Sa´mi fishing culture] seems very
uncertain. I am afraid that the traditional
fishing practices will disappear, soon
there will be no one left to practice them
It is not possible to maintain salmon fishing
culture anymore, it will slowly disappear
Land use [for purposes other than reindeer
herding] has a big impact on your sense
of safety, which is a basic need. It
impacts your whole existence. For
example plans for the Arctic railway, or
wind farms, or mines can create an
existential crisis
4. Grief associated
with lack of power
in environmental
decision-making
Right now it’s really good, but I am afraid,
because you never know what will
happen in the nature in the first place,
and what will happen with the
authorities. In the evening, when I go to
sleep, I often think about the future,
whether reindeer herding still exists
20 years from now. […] I don’t know, at
the moment reindeer herding is
profitable here. But in 20 years, who
knows if it is even allowed to have
reindeer anymore.*
I think the fishing restrictions are unequal. I
am concerned about the elderly people
in particular. If you think of an old lady,
she owns 1 km of the River Teno
shoreline and has lived all her live by the
river. Her parents and grandparents lived
here too, and they all ate Atlantic
salmon. She has never practiced
overfishing, she just took what she
needed for food. And now she has no
rights at all, she is not allowed to catch
even one salmon to get the taste of it
It [fishing ban] is part of the injustice
against Sa´mi people that is evident
everywhere. […] The rights of Sa´mi to
practice their culture [set in Constitution
of Finland] are not realized
Sa´mi culture will stay alive, but it will
change. Cultures always change, this is
how it goes. But I am afraid Sa´mi
culture will be nothing more than an
ornament in the future. Even people of
my age, some of them think: what
difference does it make…being Sa´mi,
you know, if you think about the River
Teno agreement and the fishing ban for
example, the Sa´mi rights did not count
at all
*These two quotes are also included in another article, Markkula et al. 2024. ‘‘Changing winter landscapes: Extreme weather events and meanings of snow for
Sa´mi reindeer herders’’, in press
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1211
life. The fishing ban was described as a cultural shut-down
and the Atlantic salmon fishing culture in the area was
expected to slowly disappear. This is in line with a recent
report regarding the social impacts of the River Teno
fishing ban, in which Utsjoki inhabitants, both Sa´mi and
Finnish, expressed fear and melancholy over the loss of
salmon fishing culture (Abernethy et al. 2022).
Nature itself is an important source of well-being, and
time spent in nature is beneficial for mental health (Timlin
et al. 2021). For example, berries are known to be good for
health due to their bioactive properties, but also because
berry picking is a social and cultural outdoor activity which
makes people happy (Flint et al. 2011; Boulanger-Lapointe
et al. 2019; see Table 3). Moreover, it is common that
people who live in close connection to the surrounding
nature invest themselves emotionally with plants and ani-
mals and have cultural, emotional and mental relations
with the land they live on (e.g., Sakakibara 2020). This
kind of emotional investment was evident also in our
interviews. Participants described their connection with
reindeer, the happiness they feel when in the woods and
when autumn round-ups start, and their joy of seeing the
new-born calves in spring. Some of them also expressed
worry over how reindeer and other animals will survive in
a warmer world. Participants also expressed deep emo-
tional attachment to the Atlantic salmon, and thus, a fishing
ban can be expected to affect their mental health in at least
two ways: first, by the lack of positive well-being impacts
of fishing, time spent on the river, and being in contact with
nature, and second, through feelings of melancholy and
grief over the loss of culture and traditional practices.
Moreover, Atlantic salmon fishing is an essential con-
stituent of individual and social well-being, and fishing on
the River Teno is an integrative element in the local
community (Hiedanpa¨a¨ et al. 2020; Abernethy et al. 2022).
This study, in line with earlier studies, indicates that
environmental changes are often perceived and experi-
enced through subsistence practices, and environmental
change, cultural continuity and local economy are tightly
connected (e.g., Moerlein and Carothers 2012; Ready and
Collins 2021). Human well-being is often a result of
interactions between these factors.
Environmental change and ecological grief
Studying ecological grief can enhance our understanding of
how climate and environmental changes affect people’s
well-being and help to define environmental losses that
matter to local people (Ojala et al. 2021). In this study, we
applied the categorization of the pathways of ecological
grief by Cunsolo and Ellis (2018). These categories, even
though partly overlapping, can help to understand whether
grief is a response to acute or gradual losses (grief
associated with physical ecological losses), anticipated
future losses and/or connected to cultural continuity (loss
of environmental knowledge and cultural practices).
Grief associated with physical losses typically emerges
after extreme weather events or natural disasters, but can
also emerge in response to slow, gradual and ongoing
ecological changes, such as longer-term changes in weather
patterns, landscapes or ecosystems (Cunsolo and Ellis
2018). Extreme winter weather events did not evoke strong
expressions of this kind of grief in our study. This could be
because herders have long experience of dealing with dif-
ficult and unpredictable winter weather and are skilled and
well prepared to cope with exceptional conditions (Vuo-
jala-Magga et al. 2011; Turunen et al. 2016). However,
many of these strategies are not always welcomed but
forced, and adaptation options are limited (e.g., Rasmus
et al. 2023). This is reflected in expressions of grief over
loss of traditional knowledge and anticipated future losses
in relation to extreme weather events and climate change in
general (Categories 2 and 3, Table 2). The pressure to adapt
to changing climate is strong, and it is clear that adaptation
actions, such as supplementary winter feeding and keeping
reindeer in enclosures, will finally lead to long-lasting or
permanent alterations in reindeer herding practices and
culture (e.g., Rasmus et al. 2023). Even though cultures are
dynamic and will always inevitably change, sudden and
forced changes often require mourning.
Stress and grief felt by reindeer herders over the
unpredictability in weather resonates with previous
research. In arid areas in Ghana and Australia, farmers
have lost confidence in their ability to predict future
weather and have started to question their environmental
wisdom (Ellis and Albrecht 2017; Amoak et al. 2023). In
Nunatsiavut in Canada, Inuit are increasingly questioning
their identity when they cannot go out on the land because
ice conditions are too unpredictable, leading to a situation
where it is not possible to know ‘‘what you’re good at […]
what your self-worth is, not knowing what you should be
doing with your time’’ (Cunsolo et al. 2012).
Atlantic salmon decline and fishing ban evoked strong
expressions of grief over the loss of species, traditional
knowledge and culture and anticipated future losses. While
Atlantic salmon decline, which has accelerated over recent
years, represents a gradual change, the fishing ban that
followed created a new, acute situation, which is reflected
in participant’s responses. The significance of Atlantic
salmon to the identity of the Sa´mi and other local people
clearly emerges in the participants’ descriptions of grief.
Their descriptions reflect the role of the Atlantic salmon as
part of individual participants’ life histories, of which the
following quote is particularly illustrative: It [Atlantic
salmon decline and the following fishing ban] made me feel
as if I had lost an arm, because it [fishing] had been with
123 www.kva.se/en
1212 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
me since childhood (see Table 4). Similar emotions have
been reported by Cunsolo et al. (2020) among Inuit in
Canada where Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
issued a total hunting ban on caribou in 2013 after dramatic
population decline. Inuit in Labrador adapted to the loss of
access to caribou by substituting caribou for moose and by
continuing to hunt for other species. This adaptation,
however, had an emotional cost in the form of grief, as
hunters felt that there is ‘‘nothing that could replace the
caribou’’. They saw that the hunting ban was going to lead
to a total change of culture and degradation of traditional
knowledge. Like the Sa´mi living by the River Teno, they
felt that an important part of their identity was taken away
and expressed special concern for elders, who experience
deep sadness over the cultural discontinuity (Cunsolo et al.
2020). Also, a recent study conducted among farmers in
Ghana reported that loss of environmental knowledge
associated with climate change and endangered species
was a significant source of ecological grief, and elderly
people were fearing that their knowledge might just end
within their generation (Amoak et al. 2023).
The melancholic feeling that the River Teno is no longer
the river it used to be was strongly present in the inter-
views: There are no more rowing boats on the river,
invasive pink salmon has increased enormously, and mas-
ses of their post-spawn carcasses are decaying on the
riverbanks and in the water, contributing to eutrophication
of the river. This resonates with the concept of ‘‘solastal-
gia’’ by Glenn Albrecht (2005; 2017), meaning home-
sickness that you feel while you are still at home. Feelings
of solastalgia were also connected to the changes in winter
weather, as many participants described how winters are
not what they use to be. These descriptions of weather and
snow changes resonate with the opening words of Sheila
Watt-Cloutier to her book Right to be cold (2018): ‘‘The
world I was born into has changed forever’’.
Previously, feelings of solastalgia have been docu-
mented in different parts of the world, e.g., among Inuit
communities in Labrador after caribou hunting ban was
established (Cunsolo et al. 2020), in relation to changes in
soundscapes due to decline and change in bird populations
(Krause 2017) and after population collapse of sparrows in
London (Whale and Ginn 2017). While the concepts of
solastalgia and ecological grief are partly overlapping, the
concept of solastalgia emphasizes the idea that grief people
feel for ecological losses is often place specific and con-
nected to the meanings of home.
Ecological grief and environmental decision-making
Our results suggest that ecological grief is not only asso-
ciated with ecological losses, but also with political deci-
sions regarding natural resource governance. In the
interviews, participants expressed grief, which did not
entirely fit in any of the three deductive categories. This
kind of ecological grief associated with lack of power in
environmental decision-making can emerge in situations
where local or Indigenous Peoples’ rights for harvesting are
restricted by political decisions. The River Teno fishing
ban is a good example of this. Also, as was noted before,
all extensive land use, such as forestry and windfarm,
railway or mine constructions, causes strong emotional
responses, including anxiety, grief and anger, which arise
both from the environmental loss and from the minor or
non-existing possibilities to impact decision-making
processes.
Recognizing ecological grief and solastalgia as part of
land use planning processes is important for at least two
reasons: to ensure meaningful participation to prevent grief
which arises from decision-making itself, and to
acknowledge place and Indigenous and local people’s
relationships with it. According to Howard (2020), ‘‘plan-
ning for ecological grief, with place at the forefront, is a
strong strategy for creating locally-sensitive programming
and policies, enhancing resilience, and decreasing grief-
related burdens’’. Grief is a statement of value (Howard
2020), which makes it an important aspect to consider in
land use planning and decision-making.
Howard writes that biodiversity loss places earth-based
value systems, subsistence lifestyles and cultural practices
at a high risk of future loss, and that these factors often
connect to histories of marginalization and systematic de-
realization of Indigenous concerns, aggravating experi-
ences of grief (Howard 2020). Addressing environment as
kinship, Braun (2017) describes how Lakota people mourn
the death of a buffalo as an individual and a species, but
also as a symbol of historical trauma. Histories of
marginalization were also reflected in our interviews. One
participant described the impacts of the fishing ban on
Sa´mi identity and discussed the contradictions between
fishing politics and rights of Sa´mi to practice their culture.
By asking what difference does it make—being a Sa´mi (see
Table 4), he referred to the history of marginalization, as
well as to the 2017 Fishing Agreement and the current
situation in River Teno, claiming that Sa´mi rights to
practice their culture do not actualize.
Some of the participants in our study pointed out that
they may be able to adapt to the changing situation, to fish
other species instead, e.g., pike or white fish, or start to use
pink salmon, or expressed hope that Atlantic salmon pop-
ulations will recover in the near future, and fishing ban is
no longer needed. However, despite some adaptation pos-
sibilities, many felt that the situation is beyond their con-
trol. Also Abernethy et al. (2022) have documented how
Sa´mi in Utsjoki experienced loss of control over their lives
and self-determination as a result of the Atlantic salmon
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1213
fishing ban. Similar feelings were expressed by the par-
ticipants of our study in relation to land use decisions they
could not influence and have been reported in previous
studies on reindeer herding (e.g., Lo¨f 2013; Furberg et al.
2013). Previously, Cunsolo et al. (2012) have documented
how Inuit living in Labrador experienced grief over being
unable to protect the land from the impacts of climate
change, feeling helpless while bearing witness to the
changes they could not stop from happening: ‘‘you’re in no
place to control that yourself’’. Regarding extreme weather
events, participants expressed wishes for more support
from the government during difficult times. They were
hoping that Finland would adopt practices that have been
applied in Norway, where supplementary hay for reindeer
is bought and transported to reindeer herding areas by the
state to help reindeer and herders to survive extreme
weather events. By this, they brought up that land use
decisions, local and national-level politics and practices
can thus create either hope or hopelessness among local
and Indigenous People. Finally, it should be noted that
reindeer herders who participated in our study had different
adaptation strategies, such as flexibility in subsistence and
economic diversification, and strong resilience and coping
capacity in particular in relation to extreme winter weather
events. Previous studies have noted that Indigenous Peo-
ples and local communities have, throughout their history,
fostered flexible subsistence to deal with climate variability
and should not be presented so much as victims of climate
change but as resilient actors (Moerlein and Carothers
2012; Fawcett et al. 2018; Eerkes-Medrano and Huntington
2021). However, also ecological mourning can be an
adaptive process, because in order to accept losses, it is
necessary to go through grief (Ojala et al. 2021). Previous
research has shown that nonclinical worry and grief can be
constructive and lead to adaptive behavior. However, to be
able to act, people need to perceive their situation as
controllable at least to some extent (Tallis et al. 1994;
Gross 2016; see also Ojala et al. 2021). Thus, when it
comes to local decision-making and land use planning
processes, questions of grief and control and their relations
to meaningful participation are important issues to con-
sider. Meaningful participation should include bearing
witness to the grief of others and listening to their speak-
outs and storytelling in order to understand experiences of
ecological grief that are often left unnoticed (see also
Howard 2020).
CONCLUSIONS
We studied cultural impacts of climate change and
expressions of ecological grief among members of reindeer
herding communities in the Sa´mi Homeland in Finland.
While climate change emerged as one of the main concerns
among herders, land use and natural resource governance
are equally important for the continuity of their traditional
livelihoods, having important combined effects on cultural
continuity. Moreover, climate change can force political
decisions and adaptation practices, which create stress,
concern and ecological grief among Indigenous and local
people whose lives and livelihoods are closely connected to
and depend on the surrounding nature.
Ecological grief was expressed in connection to all
major environmental concerns in the area, and it seems
clear that climate and environmental change in the Sa´mi
Homeland challenge local and Indigenous people at deep
personal and cultural levels. Ecological grief is both a local
phenomenon and a global phenomenon in that it is often
connected to local losses of place, species, ways of life and
traditional or local knowledge, but similar expressions of
grief and concern over the loss of nature, knowledge and
cultural practices are found in different parts of the world.
Expressions of ecological grief are often tightly connected
to local-level impacts of climate change. Thus, addressing
ecological grief can add to the research investigating cli-
mate change impacts, in particular to studies attempting to
create cross-cultural observation systems (e.g., Reyes-
Garcia et al. 2019).
Our results suggest that ecological grief is not only
associated with ecological losses, but also with political
decisions regarding natural resource governance and the
inability to genuinely influence them. It is our hope that
this finding will shed light on the importance of meaningful
participation of Indigenous Peoples in decision-making
processes. Addressing the concept of ecological grief can
help to include ecological places, values and identities—
which are often intangible, hard to measure or invisible—
into decision-making and land use planning.
Acknowledgements We are grateful to the reindeer herders who
participated in this study. Many thanks to Arto Vitikka for producing
the map, and Sari Kokkola for proofreading.
Funding Open Access funding provided by University of Oulu (in-
cluding Oulu University Hospital). Funding was provided by Kvan-
tum-instituutti, Oulun Yliopisto, Horizon 2020 Framework
Programme, 869580, and University of the Arctic Research
Chairship.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as
long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
123 www.kva.se/en
1214 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
org/licenses/by/4.0/.
REFERENCES
Abernethy, P., Saijets, J., Jokinen, M., Knuuttila, M. and Hiedanpa¨a¨,
J. 2022. Societal impacts of Teno river salmon fishing ban (in
Finnish). Luonnonvarakeskus 2022.
Albrecht, G. 2005. ‘‘Solastalgia: A new concept in human health and
identity. PAN (philosophy, Activism, Nature) 3: 41–55.
Albrecht, G. 2017. Solastalgia and the new mourning. In Cunsolo and
Landman, ed. Mourning Nature, 292–316. Canada: McGill-
Queens University Press.
AMAP. 2017. Adaptation actions for a changing arctic perspectives
from the barents area. Norway: Arctic Monitoring and Assess-
ment Programme.
Amoak, D., B. Kwao, T.O. Ishola, and K. Mohammed. 2023. Climate
change induced ecological grief among smallholder farmers in
semi-arid Ghana. SN Social Sciences 3: 131.
Auger, M. 2016. Cultural continuity as a determinant of indigenous
peoples’ health: A metasynthesis of qualitative research in
Canada and the United States. The International Indigenous
Policy Journal 7.
Bailey, H., A. Hubbard, E.S. Klein, K. Mustonen, P.D. Akers, H.
Mattila, and J.M. Welker. 2021. Arctic sea ice loss fuels
European extreme snowfall. Nature Geoscience 14: 283–288.
Boulanger-Lapointe, N., J. Ge´rin-Lajoie, L. Siegwart Collier, S.
Desrosiers, C. Spiech, G.H.R. Henry, L. Hermanutz, E.
Le´vesque, et al. 2019. Berry plants and berry picking in inuit
nunangat: Traditions in a changing socio-ecological landscape.
Human Ecology 47: 81–93.
Braun, S. 2017. Mourning ourselves and/as our relatives: environment
as kinship. In Cunsolo and Landman, ed. Mourning Nature,
64–91. Canada: McGill-Queens University Press.
Buchwal, A., P.F. Sullivan, M. Macias-Fauria, E. Post, I. Myers-
Smith, J.C. Stroeve, D. Blok, and K.D. Tape. 2020. Divergence
of Arctic shrub growth associated with sea ice decline.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117:
33334–33344.
Cunsolo, A.W. 2012. Climate change as the work of mourning. Ethics
and the Environment 17: 137–164.
Cunsolo, A., and N.R. Ellis. 2018. Ecological grief as a mental health
response to climate change-related loss. Nature Climate Change
8: 275–281.
Cunsolo, A., and K. Landman. 2017. Introduction: To mourn beyond
the human. In Cunsolo and Landman, ed. Mourning Nature,
3–26. Canada: McGill-Queens University Press.
Cunsolo Stephenson, A.W.E., J. Allen, F. Bourque, A. Drossos, S.
Elgarøy, M.J. Kral, I. Mauro, et al. 2015. Examining relation-
ships between climate change and mental health in the circum-
polar north. Regional Environmental Change 15: 169–182.
Cunsolo, A., D. Borish, S-L. Harper, J. Snook, I. Shiwak, M. Wood
and The Herd Caribou Project Steering Committee. 2020. ‘‘You
can never replace the caribou’’: Inuit experiences of ecological
grief from caribou declines. American Imago 77: 31–59.
Cunsolo Willox, A. S.-L. Harper, J.D. Ford, V.L. Edge, K. Landman,
K. Houle, S. Blake and C. Wolfrey. 2013. Climate change and
mental health: An exploratory case study from rigolet, nunatsi-
avut, Canada. Climatic Change 121: 255–270.
Cunsolo Willox, A., S.-L. Harper, J.D. Ford, K. Landman, K. Houle,
V.L. Edge and the Rigolet Inuit Community Government. 2012.
From this place and of this place: Climate change, sense of place,
and health in Nunatsiavut, Canada. Social Science and Medicine
75: 538–547.
Czorlich, Y., T. Aykanat, J. Erkinaro, P. Orell, and C.R. Primmer.
2022. Rapid evolution in salmon life history induced by direct
and indirect effects of fishing. Science 376: 420–423.
Dadswell, M., A. Spares, J. Reader, M. McLean, T. McDermott, K.
Samways, and J. Lilly. 2022. The decline and impending
collapse of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) population in the
North Atlantic Ocean: A review of possible causes. Reviews in
Fisheries Science and Aquaculture 30: 215–258.
Dodd, W., P. Scott, C. Howard, C. Scott, C. Rose, A. Cunsolo, and J.
Orbinski. 2018. Lived experience of a record wildfire season in
the Northwest territories, Canada. Canadian Journal of Public
Health 109: 327–337.
Durkalec, A., C. Furgal, M.W. Skinner, and T. Sheldon. 2015.
Climate change influences on environment as a determinant of
indigenous health: Relationships to place, sea ice, and health in
an Inuit community. Social Science and Medicine 136–137:
17–26.
Eerkes-Medrano, L., and H.P. Huntington. 2021. Untold stories:
Indigenous knowledge beyond the changing arctic cryosphere.
Frontiers in Climate 3: 675805.
Ellis, N.R., and G. Albrecht. 2017. Climate change threats to family
farmers’ sense of place and mental wellbeing: A case study from
the Western Australian wheatbelt. Social Science & Medicine
175: 161–168.
Fawcett, D., T. Pearce, R. Notaina, J. Ford, and P. Collings. 2018.
Inuit adaptability to changing environmental conditions over an
11-year period in Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories. Polar
Record 54: 119–132.
Flint, C.G., E.S. Robinson, J. Kellogg, G. Ferguson, L. BouFajreldin,
M. Dolan, I. Raskin, and M.A. Lila. 2011. Promoting Wellness
in Alaskan villages: Integrating traditional knowledge and
science of wild berries. EcoHealth 8: 199–209.
Furberg, M., B. Evenga˚rd, and M. Nilsson. 2013. Facing the limit of
resilience: Perceptions of climate change among reindeer
herding Sami in Sweden. International Journal of Circumpolar
Health 72: 22447.
Gross, R. 2016. Understanding grief: An introduction. London:
Routledge.
Hiedanpa¨a¨, J., J. Saijets, P. Jounela, M. Jokinen, and S. Sarkki. 2020.
Beliefs in conflict: The management of Teno Atlantic salmon in
the Sa´mi Homeland in Finland. Environmental Management 66:
1039–1058.
Holmberg, A. 2018. Bivdit Luosa – To ask for salmon. Saami
traditional knowledge on salmon and the river Deatnu: In
research and decision-making. Master thesis, The Arctic Univer-
sity of Norway.
Howard, Q. 2020. Navigating loss and damage: Making space for
ecological grief in the climate adaptation planning process.
Doctoral thesis, The University of Guelph.
Jaakkola, J.J.K., S. Juntunen, and K. Na¨kka¨la¨ja¨rvi. 2018. The holistic
effects of climate change on the culture, well-being, and health
of the Saami, the only Indigenous people in the European Union.
Current Environmental Health Reports 5: 401–417.
Jansson, R., C. Nilsson, E.C.H. Keskitalo, T. Vlasova, M.L. Sutinen,
J. Moen, and F.S. Chapin. 2015. Future changes in the supply of
goods and services from natural ecosystems: Prospects for the
European north. Ecololgy and Society 20 (3): 32.
Jokinen, M. 2014. Heated and frozen forest conflicts: Cultural
sustainability and forest management in arctic Finland. In
Forests under pressure: Local responses to global issues, vol.
32, ed. In. Katila, et al., 381–398. Europe: IUFRO World Series.
Joona, T. 2020. ILO convention No. 169 and the governance of
indigenous identity in Finland: Recent developments. The
International Journal of Human Rights 24: 241–256.
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1215
Knuuttila, M., Lankia, T. La¨nsman, M., Pouta, E., Vatanen, E., and
Venesja¨rvi, R. 2020. Regional economic effects of Altantic
salmon and the development of fishing tourism (in Finnish).
Luonnonvara- ja biotalouden tutkimus 85/2020.
Kowalczewski, E., and J. Klein. 2018. Sa´mi youth health, the role of
climate change, and unique health-seeking behaviour. Interna-
tional Journal of Circumpolar Health 77: 1454785.
Krause, B. 2017. Mourning the loss of wild soundscapes: a rationale
for content when experiencing natural sound. In Cunsolo and
Landman, ed. Mourning Nature, 27–38. Canada: McGill-Queens
University Press.
Kumpula, J., Jokinen, M., Siitari, J. and Siitari, S. 2020. Weather,
snow and nature conditions during winter 2019–2020 and
impacts on reindeer herding (in Finnish). Luonnonvara- ja
biotalouden tutkimus 58/2020.
Kumpula, J., Ra¨mo¨, S., Siitari, J., Holkeri, L., Pekkarinen, A-J. and
Tauriainen, J. 2022. Snow conditions during winter 2021–2022
and impacts on reindeer herding (in Finnish). Luonnonvara- ja
biotalouden tutkimus 71/2022.
Landauer, M., S. Rasmus, and B.C. Forbes. 2021. What drives
reindeer management in Finland towards social and ecological
tipping points? Regional Environmental Change 21: 32.
Lo¨f, A. 2013. Examining limits and barriers to climate change
adaptation in an Indigenous reindeer herding community.
Climate and Development 5: 328–339.
Luomaranta, A., J. Aalto, and K. Jylha¨. 2019. Snow cover trends in
Finland over 1961–2014 based on gridded snow depth observa-
tions. International Journal of Climatology 39: 3147–3159.
Markkula, I., M. Turunen, and S. Rasmus. 2019. A review of climate
change impacts on the ecosystem services in the Saami
Homeland in Finland. Science of the Total Environment 692:
1070–1085.
Middleton, J., A. Cunsolo, N. Pollock, A. Jones-Bitton, M. Wood, I.
Shiwak, C. Flowers, and S. Harper. 2021. Temperature and place
associations with Inuit mental health in the context of climate
change. Environmental Research 198: 111166.
Moerlein, K.J., and C. Carothers. 2012. Total environment of change:
impacts of climate change and social transitions on subsistence
fisheries in northwest Alaska. Ecology and Society 17: 10.
Ojala, M., A. Cunsolo, C. Ogunbode, and J. Middleton. 2021.
Anxiety, worry, and grief in a time of environmental and climate
crisis: A narrative review. Annual Review of Environment and
Resources 46: 35–58.
Sa´mi Parliament. 2021. Statement of the Sa´mi parliament on the
government decree on the temporary prohibition of salmon
fishing in the teno river basin (in Finnish).
Rantanen, M., A.Y. Karpechko, A. Lipponen, K. Nordling, O.
Hyva¨rinen, K. Ruosteenoja, T. Vihma, and A. Laaksonen. 2022.
The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe
since 1979. Communications Earth & Environment 3: 168.
Rasmus, S., M. Turunen, A. Luomaranta, S. Kivinen, K. Jylha¨, and J.
Ra¨iha¨. 2020. Climate change and reindeer management in
Finland: Co-analysis of practitioner knowledge and meteorolog-
ical data for better adaptation. Science of the Total Environment
710: 136229.
Rasmus, S., Landauer, M., Lehtonen, I., Mettia¨inen, I., Sorvali, J.,
Kumpula, J., Tuomenvirta, H., and Turunen, M. 2023. Adapta-
tion of reindeer herding to climate change, Final report of
Climini-project (in Finnish, English summary). Arktisen keskuk-
sen tiedotteita 64.
Reading, C.L., and F. Wien. 2009. Health inequalities and social
determinants of Aboriginal Peoples’ health. Prince George:
National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health.
Ready, E., and P. Collins. 2021. All the problems in the community
are multifaceted and related to each other: Inuit concerns in an
era of climate change. American Journal of Human Biology 33:
e23516.
Reyes-Garcia, V., D. Garcia-del-Amo, P. Benyei, A. Ferna´ndez-
Llamazares, K. Gravani, A.B. Junqueira, V. Labeyrie, X. Li,
et al. 2019. A collaborative approach to bring insights from local
observations of climate change impacts into global climate
change research. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustain-
ability 39: 1–8.
Richert, J., J. Leffler, D. Spalinger, and J.M. Welker. 2021. Snowier
winters extend autumn availability of high-quality forage for
caribou in Arctic Alaska. Ecosphere 12: e03617.
Sakakibara, C. 2020. Whale Snow: In˜upiat, climate change, and
multispecies resilience in Arctic Alaska. Arizona: Arizona
University Press.
Sarkki, S., M. Jokinen, H.I. Heikkinen, N. Nijnik, M. Melnykovuch,
and T. Kluva´nkova´. 2022. ‘‘Going out to get in’’—Roles of
forest conflicts in bottom-linked environmental governance
progressing toward socio-political innovations. Environmental
Policy and Governance 32: 478–491.
Snowshoe, A., C.V. Crooks, P.F. Tremblay, W.M. Craig, and R.E.
Hinson. 2014. Development of a cultural connectedness scale for
first nations youth. American Psychological Association 27:
249–259.
Tallis, F., G.C.L. Davey, and N. Capuzzo. 1994. The phenomenology
of non-pathological worry: a preliminary investigation. In
Worrying perspectives on theory, assessment and treatment,
ed. G.C.L. Davey and F. Tallis, 61–90. JohnWiley & Sons: New
York.
Teno Fishing Act 2017 176/2017. https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/
2017/20170176.
The Constitution of Finland §17/1999. https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/
kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf.
Timlin, U., J.H. Ingimundarson, L. Jungsberg, S. Kauppila, J.N.
Larsen, T. Nordstrom, J. Scheerf, P. Schweitzer, et al. 2021.
Living conditions and mental wellness in a changing climate and
environment: Focus on community voices and perceived envi-
ronmental and adaptation factors in Greenland. Heliyon 7:
e06862.
Turunen, M.T., S. Rasmus, M. Bavay, K. Ruosteenoja, and J.
Heiskanen. 2016. Coping with difficult weather and snow
conditions: Reindeer herders’ views on climate change impacts
and coping strategies. Climate Risk Management 11: 15–36.
Vuojala-Magga, T., M. Turunen, T. Ryyppo¨, and M. Tennberg. 2011.
Resonance strategies of Sami reindeer herding during climati-
cally extreme years in northernmost Finland in 1970–2007.
Arctic 64: 227–241.
Watt-Cloutier, S. 2018. The right to be cold: One woman’s fight to
protect the arctic and save the planet from climate change.
Canada: Minnesota Press.
Wexler, L. 2014. Looking across three generations of Alaska Natives
to explore how culture fosters Indigenous resilience. Transcul-
tural Psychiatry 51: 73–92.
Whale, H., and F. Ginn. 2017. In the absense of sparrows. In Cunsolo
and Landman, ed. Mourning Nature, 92–116. Canada: McGill-
Queens University Press.
YLE. 2023. Finnish broadcasting company, News 16.8.2023, https://
yle.fi/a/74-20045450.
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
123 www.kva.se/en
1216 Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Inkeri Markkula (&) is a post-doctoral researcher at the University
of Oulu, Ecology and Genetics Research Unit. Her research interests
include Arctic ecology, human ecology, human–environmental rela-
tions and cultural impacts of climate change.
Address: Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu,
Oulun Yliopisto, PL 8000, 90014 Oulu, Finland.
Address: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Pohjoisranta 4,
961010 Rovaniemi, Finland.
e-mail: inkeri.markkula@oulu.fi
Minna Turunen is a university researcher at the Arctic Centre,
University of Lapland. Her studies focus on the effects of climate
change on nature-based livelihoods, adaptation strategies and capacity
of practitioners to the cumulative impacts of climate, environment
and socio-economical changes.
Address: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Pohjoisranta 4,
961010 Rovaniemi, Finland.
e-mail: minna.turunen@ulapland.fi
Taru Rikkonen Taru Rikkonen works as a researcher in the Natural
Resources Institute Finland, and she mainly focuses on the reconcil-
iation of different land uses, and northern environment, nature and
livelihoods.
Address: Natural Resource Institute Rovaniemi, Ounasjoentie 6,
96200 Rovaniemi, Finland.
e-mail: taru.rikkonen@luke.fi
Sirpa Rasmus is a senior researcher at the Arctic Centre, University
of Lapland. Her research interests include the effects of climate
change on northern livelihoods and the geophysics of snow and ice.
Address: Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, Pohjoisranta 4,
961010 Rovaniemi, Finland.
e-mail: sirpa.rasmus@ulapland.fi
Veina Koski is a research assistant at the Interacting processes in
Arctic reindeer systems experiencing rapid climate change—project
in the University of Oulu.
Address: Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu,
Oulun Yliopisto, PL 8000, 90014 Oulu, Finland.
e-mail: veina.koski@student.oulu.fi
Jeffrey M. Welker is a professor of Arctic ecology and biochemistry
and UArctic Research Chair at the University of Oulu and University
of Alaska Anchorage. He has broad research interests, including the
impacts of climate change on Arctic ecosystems, wildlife, food web
and migration ecology.
Address: Ecology and Genetics Research Unit, University of Oulu,
Oulun Yliopisto, PL 8000, 90014 Oulu, Finland.
Address: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska
Anchorage, 211 Providence Drive, CPSB 101, Anchorage, Alaska
99508, USA.
Address: University of the Arctic (UArctic), Rovaniemi, Finland.
e-mail: jmwelker@alaska.edu
www.kva.se/en 123
Ambio 2024, 53:1203–1217 1217